04. Post-Satavahana Age – Ikshvakus
After the decline of the Satavahana empire, a number of provincial kingdoms came into being in South India. Chutu Satakarnis in Karnataka with Banavasi (Vaijayanti) as their capital, Abhiras in Maharashtra region (Konkan, Aparanta) and Ikshvakus in Coastal Andhra–Telangana region declared their independence. Ikshvakus exercised political supremacy for 80 years (220–300 C.E.) — the initial period in the four centuries between the decline of the Satavahana empire and the establishment of the Eastern Chalukyan kingdom (Vengi).
Pulumavi IV, the last Satavahana king, was overthrown by the Ikshvaku king Srisantamula, who declared independence. Their empire extended to Krishna, Guntur, Kurnool and Prakasam Districts in Andhra Pradesh and Nalgonda, Khammam and Mahaboobnagar Districts in Telangana.
They made Vijayapuri in the Nagarjunakonda valley their capital. The name ‘Vijayapuri’ might have come from Vijaya Satakami, the Satavahana king whose inscription was found here. Lion was the royal emblem. Nagarjunakonda/Vijayapuri flourished as a leading Buddhist holy place and intellectual center. Arts of architecture, sculpture and painting developed.
Sources
Archaeological sources: inscriptions, coins, monuments, architecture and sculpture. Inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Ramireddi Palli and Phanigiri are primary sources. Written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. From the time of Ehuvala Santamula, inscriptions were issued in Sanskrit. Four groups: (1) Mahastupa & Ayaka Pillar inscriptions; (2) Chaityagriha inscriptions; (3) detached pillar inscriptions; (4) inscriptions on sculpture.
Coins: Found at Nagarjunakonda, Phanigiri, Nelakondapalli, Vaddemanu (Mahaboobnagar) and Yeleswaram (Nalgonda). Ikshvaku coins were limited, small, and they did not issue gold and silver coins.
Literary sources: Matsya, Vayu, Brahmanda and Vishnu Puranas mention Ikshvaku kings and their rule. Dharmamritam (11th C.E. Kannada work) mentions Yasodhara, Ikshvaku king of Angadesa, established a kingdom at the mouth of Krishna river with Pratipalapuram (Bhattiprolu) as capital.
Original Home & Origin
No unanimous opinion. Initially Ikshvakus were Andhrabhrityuvulu (servants of Andhras) — served as Mahatalavaras and Mahasenapatis under the Satavahanas. Like Satavahanas, they had names starting with mothers’ names and ending with ‘anaka’/‘Skandha’ — showing Satavahana impact.
According to Vayu Purana, Ikshvakuvu was head of Suryavamsa, eldest of nine sons of Manuvu, ruled from Ayodhya. Vishnu Purana: Kosala (Southern region) kingdom established by Kusha from Kosasthali. Bauddhayana noted the practice of marrying aunt’s (father’s sister) daughters among South Indians — Virapurushadatta married two daughters of his aunt, suggesting Ikshvakus were South Indians.
Sriparvatiya Ikshvakus – Origin
Puranas mention Sriparvatiyas, Andhrabhrityas and Sriparvatiyandhras. The area from Nagarjunakonda to Nallamala hills around Srisaila mountain was Sriparvata. Prakrit inscriptions at Jaggayyapeta and Nagarjunakonda reveal Srisantamula was an Ikshvaku Maharaja with capital Vijayapuri (west of Sriparvata). During 3rd–4th C.E., Sriparvata was called Vijayapuri. Ikshvaku kings adopted the Satavahana tradition of keeping mothers’ names before their own — this tradition ended with them.
K.P. Jaiswal for the first time clarified that Ikshvakus and Sriparvatiyas are one and the same, and Sriparvatiyandhras belonged to the Andhra Satavahana bhritya dynasty. Thus, Sriparvatiyas, Ikshvakus and Andhrabhrityas are one and the same — not different.
Chronology
No unanimity. Matsya Purana: after Andhras, their bhrityas Sriparvatiyas (seven kings) ruled for 52 years. Pargiter opined 52 or 100 years based on ‘Dvipanchasatam’. Inscriptions: Santamula ruled at least 13 years (13th regnal year); Virapurushadatta 20 years; Ehuvala Santamula 24 years; Rudrapurushadatta 18 years (Phanigiri inscription).
D.C. Sircar (based on Nagarjunakonda inscriptions) said Ikshvaku rule was at least 75 years and adjusted:
| Ruler | Period (Sircar) |
|---|---|
| Virapurushadatta | 255–275 C.E. |
| Ehuvala Santamula | 280–335 C.E. |
| Rudrapurushadatta | 335–345 C.E. |
Sircar: Nagarjunakonda inscription is of 278 C.E.; Abhiras defeated Ikshvakus and controlled Nagarjunakonda for five years (275–280 C.E.). But Maremanda Rama Rao and V.V. Mirasi rejected this — Buddhist and Hindu structures were raised extensively during Virapurushadatta and Ehuvala Santamula; Rama Rao said the kings in Abhira Vasusena’s inscription were relatives of Ikshvakus, meeting on the occasion of installation of Ashtabhuja Swamy idol.
P.V. Parabrahma Sastry chronology:
| Ruler | Period (Sastry) |
|---|---|
| Santamula | 230–245 C.E. |
| Virapurushadatta | 245–270 C.E. |
| Ehuvala Santamula | 270–285 C.E. |
| Rudrapurushadatta | 285–300 C.E. |
Historians agree Satavahana empire fell between 220–225 C.E. Manchikallu inscription (Pallava invasion) suggests Ikshvaku decline around 300 C.E. So Ikshvaku rule: 220–300 C.E. (80 years). Fixed reign periods:
| Ruler | Period |
|---|---|
| Santamula | 220–233 C.E. |
| Virapurushadatta | 233–253 C.E. |
| Ehuvala Santamula | 253–277 C.E. |
| Abhira Vasusena / interim | 277–278–283 C.E. |
| Rudrapurushadatta | 283–301 C.E. |
Caste of Ikshvakus
Different opinions — brahmins, kshatriyas, local tribes. Virapurushadatta claimed in his Nagarjunakonda inscription that they were kshatriyas of the solar race, claiming descent from Sriramachandra of Ikshvaku dynasty (Ayodhya/Kosala) and from the dynasty of Sakyamuni Gautama Buddha. Ikshvakus were one of the local tribes. In ancient India, kings linked their dynasty with Pauranic dynasties. Since they added the brahmin gotra of their mothers to their names, some opined they were brahmins. King Santamula performed Asvamedha, Vajpeya, Agnistoma and Agnihotra sacrifices — some scholars say only kshatriyas performed these, so Ikshvakus were kshatriyas. Dr. Bhandarkar felt Ikshvakus might have descended from a mixed lineage (father kshatriya, mother brahmin). In the beginning they might have belonged to local republican tribes and after becoming rulers, like Satavahanas, attained social eminence and embraced brahmanism.
Rule Period – Political Developments
Inscriptions give information about four Ikshvaku kings:
- Vasishtiputra Santamula — 220–233 C.E.
- Madhariputra Virapurushadatta — 233–253 C.E.
- Ehuvala Santamula — 253–277 C.E.
- Rudrapurushadatta — 283–301 C.E.
Vasishtiputra Santamula (220–233 C.E.)
Founder of the independent Ikshvaku kingdom. With Hiranyakas and Pugiya dynasty, dethroned Pulumavi IV and declared independence. Brought Telangana and Coastal Andhra under his rule. Inscriptions at Rentala and Kesanapalli. His greatness is in Nagarjunakonda inscriptions issued by his son Virapurushadatta — donated crores of gold coins, thousands of cows, oxen, ploughs, acres of land. In the sculpture on the fifth slab of his memorial stupa, Santamula is seen with clean-shaved head, stick in hand, as performer of Agnistoma sacrifice. Deer skin on shoulders, ordinary clothes, no shoes, umbrella over head, servant holding water pot, five Brahmins — one receiving donation with right hand from the king. His sisters Harmyasri and Santisri praised him in inscriptions, but their father’s name is not mentioned.
Santamula performed Asvamedha, Agnistoma, Agnihotra and Vajapeya sacrifices. Vajapeya was performed only by samrats and emperors. In Nagarjunakonda excavations, Asvamedha platform was unearthed. Title: ‘maharaja’. Marriage alliances with Pugiyu and Danika dynasties. Sister Santisri married Mahaskandhasri (Pugiya dynasty, Mahasenapati and Mahatalavari) — she was called Mahadanapatni and Mahatalavari; son Skandasagura. Other sister Harmyasri — husband’s details not available. Santamula married his daughter Adavi Santisri to Skanda Visakhanaga (Dhanika family, Mahasenapati and Mahadandanayaka). Santamula followed Vedic religion; worshipper of Skanda Kartikeya (Mahasena) of Ujjain. Both sisters kept faith in Buddhism.
Madhariputra Sri Virapurushadatta (233–253 C.E.)
Son of Santamula. Inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta and Alluru. Greatest ruler of the Ikshvaku dynasty. Contracted matrimonial alliances with contemporary royal dynasties, establishing a stable kingdom. As per Nagarjunakonda inscription, he had five wives: Bapisri and Sashtisri (daughters of his aunts Harmasri and Santasri), Mahadevi Rudrabhattarikaa (Saka Kshatrapa princess of Ujjain, descendant of Chasthana), and Mahadevi Bhattideva (fifth wife). Only daughter Kodabalisri married Vishnuruda Sivalananda Satakami (Banavasi, Chutu dynasty, Maharaja of Kuntaladesa) — recorded in inscription issued by Kodabalisri in the 11th regnal year of Ehuvala Sri Santamula.
Virapurushadatta initially followed Vedic religion, later embraced Buddhism. His reign was a brighter period in the history of Buddhism in Andhra. A sculpture at Nagarjunakonda shows him touching Sivalinga with his right leg — some scholars say this indicates forsaking Saivism, but it is learnt this sculpture was part of Mandhata Jatakam, not related to Virapurushadatta. His aunt Santisri was responsible for Buddhist structures at Nagarjunakonda. During his sixth regnal year, he built Maha Chaitya at Nagarjunakonda over Buddha’s remains. Santisri had great affection for Brahmins, sramans and the poor. During the 18th regnal year of her nephew, wishing for his success, better health and longer life, she issued another inscription. Because of Santisri, Ikshvaku queens (five wives of Virapurushadatta) honoured and patronized Buddhism.
Ehuvala Santamula (253–277 C.E.)
Also called Vasishtiputra Bahubala Santamula or Santamula II. Son of Mahadevi Vasishtibhattideva and Virapurushadatta. The tradition of adopting the grandfather’s name started from Ikshvakus — later followed by Guptas, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Vishnukundus and Salankayanas. Inscriptions found in Nagarjunakonda excavations. One inscription: before his 11th regnal year, a battle was fought; his commander-in-chief Elisri, due to the mercy of Kartikeya, achieved victory. This inscription was issued by Elisri in the 11th regnal year of Ehuvala Santamula. Elisri built Yeleswaram town and constructed a Saiva temple known as ‘Sarvadevalaya’.
In Nagarjunakonda excavations, an inscription issued by Abhira king Vasusena in his 30th regnal year was found — referring to Avanti king Saka Rudradaman, Abhira king Vasusena and Banavasi (Chutu) king Vishnurudra Sivalananda Satakami. They installed the idol of Ashtabhujaswami. The then Ikshvaku king’s name is absent — giving scope for doubts. D.C. Sircar opined these kings supported Abhira Vasusena’s invasion against Ikshvakus in capturing Vijayapuri and installing Ashtabhujaswami. Abhiras ruled Nagarjunakonda for some years. By the time of Ehuvala Santamula, Sanskrit became the court language in place of Prakrit. He followed Vedic religion, devotee of Swami Mahasena. During his reign, Kartikeya temple, Pushpabhadruswami temple, Nodigiswara temple and Devi temple were built at Vijayapuri.
Rudrapurushadatta (283–301 C.E.)
Based on coins found at Gurajala (Guntur District), Nagarjunakonda and Phanigiri, and names in inscriptions, historians identified him as the last Ikshvaku king. Son of Ehuvala Santamula. In his fourth regnal year, Nodukasri donated land to his God Halampuraswamy — identified as Nagulapuram in Guntur District.
Virapurushadatta II — brother of Rudrapurushadatta; died while he was Yuvaraja (crown prince).
The Ikshvaku kingdom declined due to aggression of the Pallavas of Kanchi, who occupied Vijayapuri. Inscription of Pallava Simhavarma was found in Manchikallu village (Guntur District). Paleographists found the script (Prakrit) resembles Ikshvaku inscriptions. Among Pallava inscriptions found so far, this is the oldest. After the Pallavas’ decline, their feudatories Brihatpalayanas (Krishna valley) and Ananda Gotris (Guntur mandal) declared independence.
Administrative Organization
Ikshvakus adopted the Satavahana administrative system with few changes. Inscriptions are the main source.
Central Government
King was supreme authority and despot — all powers vested in him. Administration carried on as per Dharmasastras and Smritis. King was protector of dharma, not the one who designs it. Kings issued inscriptions describing victories and praising fathers and grandfathers. Vasishtiputra Santamula assumed the title ‘maharaja’. Kings conquered neighbouring kingdoms; performed Asvamedha, Vajpeya and Agnistoma as signs of victory. Divine right monarchy clearly established by Ikshvaku times — through Vedic sacrifices they declared themselves divine right monarchs. Ministers and officials felt the king was personification of God on earth; opposing the king amounted to opposing God.
Officials: mahatalavara, mahasenapati, mahadandanayaka, kostagarika (treasurer). One person held two or more posts. Vasishtiputra Skandasri (Pugiya family) and Vasishtiputra Skandachaliki Remmanaka (Hiranya family) assumed titles of mahasenapati, mahatalavari, mahadandanayaka. Mahatalavaras had status of feudatories — maintained law and order. Mahasenapati looked after military affairs. Mahadandanayaka conducted criminal trials and imposed punishments (judicial duties). Officials had marriage alliances with royal families.
Local Government
Empire divided into rashtras. Allur and Amaravati inscriptions refer to ‘rattha’ (rashtra). Rashtra = equivalent of ‘ahara’ in Satavahana administration. Names: Pugi rashtra, Hiranya rashtra, Munda rashtra. ‘Rathikudu’ and ‘rathi’ = administrator of a rashtra. Five villages = ‘grama panchaka’. ‘Mahagrama’ under mahagramika. Village administration hereditary. ‘Talavara’ = village official. One with authority over several village officials = ‘mahatalavari’. When kings donated villages and lands, concerned village official and important persons were assembled and informed.
Judicial Administration
King was highest official. Mahadandanayaka conducted trials at Center and imposed punishments. Special courts existed. Punishments severe — death sentence for treason and offence against king; fines and beating with sticks for small offences. Sources are not many. Palamur inscription of Madhava Varma III (Vishnukundi king, post-Satavahana Age) described himself as one who held several divine tests. Nine types of divine tests:
| Divya | Method |
|---|---|
| Tula-divya | Weighing the criminal and deciding culpability |
| Agni-divya | Accused walks on fire without feet getting burnt |
| Jala-divya | Arrows sent into water have to be brought out by dipping into it |
| Visha-divya | From a pot with cobra, accused takes out a ring without being bitten |
| Kosa-divya | Drink water used for cleaning idols of Gods/Goddesses and survive |
| Tandula-divya | Chew rice over which mantras were administered |
| Tapta maska-divya | Coin has to be taken out of boiling oil |
| Phala-divya | Hold burning iron rod, then press grain in same hand |
| Dharmadharma-divya | Idols of dharma and adharma in a jar; idol taken out decides guilt |
Army Organization
Followed Satavahana army organization. Four-fold division: chariots, elephants, cavalry, infantry. When king on expedition, villagers provided milk, curd, vegetables; arranged sitting material and cots. Army groups had highest importance. Highest percentage of revenue used for army maintenance. King himself led the army at war. Spies gathered enemy strengths and weaknesses. Main weapons: swords and spears; headgear and shield for protection; arrows also used. War caused heavy damage to crops, losses to people, and a frightful atmosphere.
Income and Expenditure
Land revenue = chief source, called ‘bhaga’ (king’s share) — generally 1/6th of crop. Another land tax ‘bhoga’ collected by local administrators and enjoyed by them. ‘Hiranyam’ or ‘Deyam’ in cash and ‘meyam’ in kind. Tax ‘kara’ on industries, crafts and trade. Taxes on salt, sugar; duty on highways. Forests and green plains belonged to king. Tax on water for irrigation. Important tax in kind: cattle — agriculturists gave the first calf to the Government as duty (Mirasi).
Income spent in four parts: (1) Government maintenance, army, salaries/allowances to big officials; (2) temple construction, worship, celebrations; (3) patronage of poets, scholars, intellectuals; (4) gifts to different religions. For agriculture development, rulers spent on tanks and canals.
Social Conditions
Post-Satavahana society: four varnas plus several mixed castes and sub-castes. Every person adopted ancestral occupation and social status by birth. Later, castes on occupation basis took shape. Kings considered it their duty to keep varnas pure, but varnas lost purity; ‘varna contamination’ occurred. According to Nagarjunakonda inscriptions, Pugiyulu, Hiranyakulu, Mundalu, Dhanikulu, Nagulu, Selakulu, Kulahakulu and Ikshvakus contracted marriage alliances with local families (Pugiyas, Hiranyakas) and Ujjain Kshatrups.
Position of Brahmins improved. Vedic rituals, Brahmins in higher posts, temple construction improved their economic condition. Kings gave land to Brahmins. Officials should not enter donated villages — exemption from 18 types of taxes. Lands cultivated by Sudras. Feudal Lords emerged between king and people. Brahmins formed three branches: Vedic scholars, temple priests, employees of king. By 2nd C.E., foreign communities (Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Abhiras) got sanskritised and received kshatriya status. Sudras gained political emergence. Patronized Brahmins performed Vedic rituals and came to be considered kshatriyas. Vaisyas resorted to trade and business; big businesses run by merchant associations (guilds). Besides Vaisyas, weavers, oil extractors and blacksmiths conducted trade.
Majority were Sudras — agriculturists called halikas; handicraft persons: blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, weavers, washermen, barbers, leather workers. Inscriptions mention donations to ‘rathakarulu’ — they wear the thread (yagnopaveetam), call themselves Viswabrahmins, descendants of Viswakarma. Goldsmiths, blacksmiths, kanchara, Kasi and carpenters were one and the same. Kings gave lands on grant to them.
Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda inscriptions mention that women of high families gave donations independently. For the mahachaitya at Nagarjunakonda, royal women made donations freely. Though Ikshvaku kings followed Vedic religion, women patronized Buddhism, built chaityas and made donations. Like Satavahanas, Ikshvaku kings added their mother’s name before their names.
Economic Conditions
Feudalism
State system depended on feudalism. King as overlord of land became the basis. Divine right monarchy contributed. Ryot’s rights over land disappeared; he became an agricultural serf. Kings freely declared village donations to Brahmins and religious organizations — they gained all rights over land. Later, higher officials received lands yielding equivalent income instead of salaries. Santamula donated lakhs of ploughs, cows, oxen and gold — worked for agriculture development. Forests cut, new lands cultivated. Canals and tanks dug for irrigation. Such artificial construction unearthed at Nagarjunakonda.
Land grants contributed to agriculture. Brahmins knew seasons, panchangam, seeds, effect of soils. Donated lands had exemption from 18 types of taxes (Hirahadagalli and Maidavolu inscriptions of Pallava Sivaskanda Varma). King’s officials should not enter donated villages. New land relations took place; feudalism took roots. Local chiefs remained obedient, paid tribute, maintained army and supplied it to king at war. Village officials remitted part of revenue to local chief.
Agriculture – Crops
Main livelihood. Crops: paddy, wheat, sugarcane, dry crops (bajra, ragulu), pulses (red gram), oil seeds (castor), cattle fodder (jute), cotton. Cotton cultivated as dry and wet crop. Coconut contributed to coastal economic development. Nasik inscription: Saka ruler Rishabhadatta donated two coconut gardens — 32,000 and 8,000 coconut trees — to Brahmins. Local markets were trading centers for crop production.
Handicrafts – Guilds
Nagarjunakonda excavations unearthed craftsmen’s houses. Goldsmith’s craft material (‘atchulu’, ‘musalu’) found; gold and silver artistic objects found. Ikshvaku inscriptions refer to Pamika Sreni, betel leaf craftsmen’s guild, Pusika Sreni (confectioners’ guild), and ‘Kulika Pramukhudu’ (leader of the guild). One inscription: craftsmen constructed a temple and mandapa; reserve fund arranged for maintenance. Vilopatti inscription indicates handicraft industries continued in villages.
Internal and External Trade
Trade with Rome continued. Roman coins found at Nagarjunakonda — Roman trade center at Vijayapuri. Internal and external trade under Vaisyas. By 3rd C.E., trade with Rome declined. No strong centralized authority; small kingdoms fought each other — internal trade and cottage industry suffered. Decline of cities and villages started. Satavahana coins found in highest number; post-Satavahana coins very few. No one issued coins with ship figure after Satavahanas. After 3rd C.E., Roman trade shifted to land routes — North Indian trade centers gained importance. Nagarjunakonda inscription (14th regnal year of Virapurushadatta) refers to Ghantasala — main port at the main entrance of Krishna river. From Satavahana times: Barukachhram (Broach), Kalyani (Maharashtra), Sopara, Mysolea (Machilipatnam) continued as ports. Exports: spices, iron, steel, hand-woven clothes, coconuts. Imports: gold, silver, copper, intoxicants, glass material. Trade favoured India. When Roman empire banned trade with India, handicrafts and towns declined.
As trade declined, agriculture gained importance. Barter system developed — grain given in return for articles and services. No need for kings to issue coins. Town culture declined; rural culture developed.
Cultural Development
Literature, architecture and art achieved remarkable progress. Vedic, Buddhist and Jain religions flourished. Prakrit remained official language, but Sanskrit achieved good patronage. Buddhist stupas, viharas, chaityas, Navagraha, Sarvadevalaya Hindu temples mirror architecture and sculpture.
Religious Development
Buddhism: Except Virapurushadatta, three Ikshvaku kings followed Vedic religion, but their queens patronized Buddhism. By 2nd C.E., Nagarjunakonda became a famous Buddhist arama. Inscriptions refer to several sects: Mahasanghikas — Poorvasaileeyulu (Pubbasailu), Aparasaileeyulu, Bahusruteeyulu. Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda were main centers for Poorvasaileeyulu and Aparasaileeyulu. Other sects: Rajagirikulu, Mahisasakulu, Siddhantikulu. Virapurushadatta’s period was brightest for Buddhism. His aunt Santisri built a mahachaitya containing Buddha’s dhatuvu at Nagarjunakonda and erected nine ayaka pillars. She donated to Brahmins, sramans, poor; wished all beings happy in both worlds — reminds of Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhist sculptures at Nagarjunakonda testify Mahayana Buddhism flourished.
Not only royal ladies but common ladies made donations and issued inscriptions. Upasika Bodisri, niece of Bodisarma (treasurer), built a Vihara at Chuladammagiri, Vijayapuri — famous as Simhala Vihara. Buddhist propagators from Ceylon propagated dharma in Kashmir, Gandhara, China, Chilata, Tosali, Aparanta, Vanga, Vanavasa, Yavana, Damila and Palura. Kodabalisri, daughter of Virapurushadatta, built a vihara for Mahisasikas. During Ehuvala Santamula, his mother Mahadevi Bhattideva built a Mahavihara and Mahachaitya for Bahusrutiyas.
Buddhistic relations existed between Simhalam and Nagarjunakonda. Buddhist monks from Srilanka visited Nagarjunakonda. Mahasanghika Acharyas byhearted Dighanikaya and Majjimanikaya. Chief Buddhistic centers: Andhra Pradesh — Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Chinaganjam, Ramireddi Palli, Bavikonda; Telangana — Nelakondapalli, Tummalagudem, Gajulabanda (Nalgonda District). Badanta Ananda belonged to Aparamahavina saileeya branch (3rd C.E.) — perhaps on his persuasion Virapurushadatta embraced Buddhism. Aryadeva, Dharmanandi and Badanta Ananda were disciples of Nagarjuna. Aryadeva wrote ‘Chittasuddhi Prakarana’; made light of Vedic practices, murdered by Vedic followers.
Post-Satavahana Age (3rd C.E. to 7th C.E. first quarter): Buddhaviveka, Buddhaghosa, Dharmakirti, Siddha Nagarjuna. Bhavaviveka (5th C.E.) wrote ‘Pragna Pradeepa’ commentary on Nagarjuna’s Madhyamika Sastra. Buddhaghosa was for Theravada (Hinayana) what Nagarjuna was for Mahayana. Went to Srilanka, lived in Anuradhapura Vihara, wrote ‘Visuddhamogga’ for Theravadis. Dharmakirti studied at Nalanda University; disciple of Dharmapala of Kanchi. Siddha Nagarjuna resided at Dhanyakatakam and Sriparvata; belonged to Vajrayana sect (tantric vada). Ramireddipalli inscription says he was a Telugu person; received rasasiddhi, swarnasiddhi, Vajrayana siddhi. Vajrayana followers justified five acts: madhuvu (intoxicating drink), Mamsam (meat), matsyam (fish), mudra (body posture), maithinam (sexual intercourse). Dhanyakatakam, Sankhavaram, Ramatirtham, Salihundam — Vajrayana centers. Buddhism declined later.
Jainism: Main centers during Ikshvakus: Penugonda, Pithapuram, Nedunuru, Tatipaka, Aryavatam, Draksharamam. At Aryavatam, statues of six Tirthankaras (3rd C.E.) found.
Puranic Hindu Religion – Saivism, Vaishnavism: Srisantamula performed Vedic sacrifices (asvamedha, vajapeya, agnistoma, agnihotra). Devotee of Virupakshapati (Siva), Mahasena (Skanda), Kartikeya. Ehuvala Santamula constructed Siva temple Pushpabhadruswamy at Nagarjunakonda. Elisri (commander-in-chief) built Siva temple for Kumaraswamy named ‘Sarvadeva’. Temple ‘Nodagisvara’ at Nagarjunakonda — Ratavasya (merchant’s daughter) and others donated to Nodageswaraswamy. Sivasena, commander-in-chief of Abhira Vasusena (attacked Ikshvaku kingdom during Ehuvala Santamula), built Vaishnava temple ‘Ashtabhujaswamy’ at Nagarjunakonda. Worship of Mother Goddess existed — Hariti temple at Nagarjunakonda. Women offered bangles at Saptamatrikas in Hariti temple for begetting children. Puranic, Saiva, Vaishnava and Sakteya religions honoured; Skanda Ganapati, Yaksha, Hariti worshipped.
Language and Literature
Prakrit was official language; from 4th C.E., Sanskrit occupied its place in inscriptions and literature. Causes: emergence of Mahayana Buddhism, Vedic religion becoming stronger. Before 11th regnal year of Ehuvala Santamula — Prakrit; later — Sanskrit. Virapurushadatta’s inscriptions were in Sanskrit. Sarvadeva inscription of Elisri (Ehuvala Santamula’s commander-in-chief) in Sanskrit. Kondamudi inscription of Jayavarma (Brihatpalayana king) in Prakrit. Salankayanas and Anandagotris used both Prakrit and Sanskrit. All Vishnukund inscriptions in Sanskrit.
Sanskrit received royal patronage. Kings donated villages and lands to Vedic scholars. Famous universities: Dhanyakatakam (Amaravati) and Nagarjunakonda. Udyotana (8th C.E.) in ‘Kuvalayamala’ stated Buddhist monks from Srilanka, Tibet, Nepal and all regions of India came here for education. Aryadeva (disciple of Nagarjuna) wrote ‘Chittasuddhi Prakaranam’. Inscriptions refer to Astronomy, Medicine, Mathematics. Hiuen-tsang (7th C.E.) stated Sriparvata Vihara lacked patronage.
Architecture and Sculpture
3rd–4th C.E.: Buddhistic arts and architecture flourished gloriously. Even after Satavahana decline, architecture and sculpture did not become extinct. Nagarjunakonda excavations: impregnable fort, moat, buildings, open air stadium, asvamedha platform of Santamula, Buddhist Stupas, Viharas, Chaityas, Aramas, temples, bathing ghats. Playground constructed in different stories — nowhere else in India such structure unearthed. Some scholars: built with help of Roman experts. Approximately 30 Buddhist Aramas at Nagarjunakonda, built by different Buddhist branches. Nagarjunakonda testifies changes in Buddhism. Impact of Aparamahavinasaileeya, Maha Viharavasini, Mahisasika and Bahusruteeya branches fell on architecture and sculpture. Earlier taboo on showing Buddha in human form; because of Aparamahavinasaileeya branch, Buddha statues carved beautifully.
Buddhist Stupas and Viharas (3rd C.E.) in Telangana: Nelakondapalli (Khammam), Gajulabanda, Tummalagudem, Nandikonda (Nalgonda). Andhra Pradesh: Goli, Chandavaram, Dupadu, Namburu, Uppugunduru, Rentala. Three types of Stupas at Nagarjunakonda: (1) over body parts (bones, teeth, hair, nails) of Buddha or leading monk; (2) over begging bowls and articles used by monks; (3) memorials of Buddha or disciples without remains/objects.
Amaravati sculpture tradition continued; reached greatest heights at Nagarjunakonda. Sculptors carved Buddha as emblems: feet, horse, bodhi tree, dharmachakra, stupa, trisula. Stories: meeting of Buddha, Yasodhara and Rahul, Sibi Jataka, Mandhata Jataka — carved in Chaityas at Nagarjunakonda, Ghantasala, Gummadidurru, Goli. Masterpieces: Buddha images, Santamula’s memorial pillar, Virapurushadatta’s hatred towards brahmana religion and embracing Buddhism, Virapurushadatta suppressing rebellion, erotic sculptures.
Nelakondapalli: Most important stupa of post-Satavahana time — mahastupa, Viharas of Chatussala type, many man-size Buddha statues (3rd–6th C.E.). Bronze Buddha statue and nine marble Buddha statues unearthed. Marble pieces and water containers found nearby — V.V. Krishna Sastry opined it was a factory where Buddha statues were prepared. Nelakondapalli Buddha images are specimens of Amaravati art. Gajulabanda: Buddhist stupas, Vihara, Chaitya remains; two limestone lion dolls. Nandikonda: some Buddhist structures unearthed.
During Ikshvakus, construction of Hindu temples commenced. Nagarjunakonda remains: temples of Kartikeya, Pushpabhadruswamy, Ashtabhujaswamy, Hariti, Kubera, Navagrahas (Ehuvala Santamula time). Sarvadeva temple at Yeleswaram (Nalgonda District). Temples built as per agama sastra with sanctum, antarala, mantapa, dhvaja stambha, prakara/compound wall. Depicting Itihasas and Puranas in sculpture continued. Female sculptures at Nagarjunakonda showed more erotic appeal; carved slim and attractive.
Conclusion: Ikshvakus started as feudatories of Satavahanas, commenced independent rule after their decline, and carried on their administrative system and cultural trends. Like Satavahanas, they added their mother’s name before their names. Through marriage alliances with nearby royal dynasties, they worked for stability and expansion. They donated land, oxen, ploughs and cows in thousands — encouraging agriculture. They built tanks and canals. Sudras and women attained independence and progress. Agriculture, handicraft industries and internal/external trade developed. Foreign trade with Rome; Ghantasala was the main port at the mouth of Krishna river. Spread of Buddhism, Jainism, Saivism and Vaishnavism contributed to Sanskrit language and progress of architecture and sculpture. Buddhist stupas, Viharas, memorial emblems, Saiva and Vaishnava temples at Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Nelakondapalli, Tummalagudem and Gajulabanda demonstrate their services for art and cultural development.
⚡ Exam Quick Revision
| Point | Key Fact |
|---|---|
| Period | 220–300 C.E. (80 years) |
| Capital | Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda) |
| Royal Emblem | Lion |
| Founder | Vasishtiputra Santamula |
| Greatest Ruler | Madhariputra Virapurushadatta |
| Last Ruler | Rudrapurushadatta |
| Language Shift | Prakrit → Sanskrit (Ehuvala Santamula) |
| Decline | Pallava invasion (Simhavarma, Manchikallu inscription) |
| Key Port | Ghantasala (Krishna river mouth) |
| Main Buddhist Center | Nagarjunakonda (Mahayana flourished) |
| Divine Tests | 9 types (Tula, Agni, Jala, Visha, Kosa, Tandula, Tapta Maska, Phala, Dharmadharma) |
| Land Tax | Bhaga (1/6th), Bhoga, Hiranyam/Deyam, Meyam, Kara |
| Tax Exemption | 18 types for donated villages |
| Important Inscriptions | Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayyapeta, Ramireddi Palli, Phanigiri, Manchikallu |
📌 Ikshvakus – Post-Satavahana Age | Telangana History & Culture · Exam-focused notes
