UNIT 8: Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Rashtrakutas: Comprehensive Exam Study Notes

Introduction

Rashtrakutas occupied the most prominent place in the history of South India. Remaining as feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami, they after the decline of the Badami Chalukyas, established an independent and vast empire. Many districts of Telangana used to be under the rule of the Rashtrakutas. Manyakheta in Karnataka region remained as their capital.

Origin

There are different opinions among the historians regarding the origin of the Rashtrakutas. While some scholars held the view that their political life started in Maharashtra, others argue that their original homeland was Karnataka.

• Dr. Fleet felt that Rashtrakutas belonged to the Rathor descendents of Northern India.
• R.G Bhandarkar is of the opinion that the Rajjakas (provincial governors) of the Mauryan days only might have become Rashtrakutas.
• Dr. Barnal has informed that Rashtrakutas were Telugu people and after sometime, they were called as Reddis.
• Mallampalli Somasekhara Sarma has also held the opinion that remaining as Rattadi or Charriot-drivers, the Rashtrakutas were those who later became Reddis of Telugu land.
• A.S. Altekar tells that the term 'Rashtrakuta', remained the name of employer and later as they established independent kingdom, that became established as their dynastic name.

The word Rashtrakuta was not the name of race. As 'gramakuta' means a village official in the ancient days, so also it could be said that 'Rashtrakuta' indicates employer name. During the Mauryan period, person known as 'Rashtriya' used to be the viceroy of bigger regions, such as Gujarat and Kathiawar. In the first centuries of A.D., Rathikas and Maharathikas governed small regions in Maharashtra and Berar and when central government became weak, they established independent kingdoms.

It is being learnt that the word 'Rashtrakuta' has been adopted as their dynastic name. Among the Rashtrakutas who became independent, important were those, who became the chiefs of Lattaluru. The present day Kannada-speaking Latur in Bidar district is only this Lattaluru. Hence, their mother tongue must have been Kannada only.

During the time of Badami Chalukyas, they remained as their feudatories. They might have belonged to the Rathika family in Maharashtra areas or to the Reddi family in Andhra and Karnataka regions. In their dynastic anecdotes, Rashtrakutas claimed themselves to have originated from Satyaki, the brother of Sri Krishna. Ruling Bidar and Maharashtra areas, these Rashtrakutas cooperated for keeping the prestige of the Badami Chalukya Kingdom and when that kingdom got disintegrated they established that independent kingdom and within a short time, became the emperors of Dakshinapatha of South India.

Political Developments

Rashtrakutas ruled nearly for 200 years. The brother of Nannaraju, who ruled Ellichpur area in 631 A.D., is considered as the ancestor in their dynasty.

Indra Raja - I (696 - 710 A.D.) was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. They ruled Manyakheta and Western Telangana areas as the feudatories of the Badami Chalukyas. After them Govindaraja or Varma - I (710 - 725 A.D.), Kanakaraja - I (725 - 735 A.D.) and Indraraja - II (735 - 748 A.D.) used to be the feudatories of Badami Chalukyas.

Dantidurga (748 - 758 A.D.)

Independent Rashtrakuta kingdom was established by Dantidurga. He was the son of Indraraja II. He was highly courageous and of keen temperament. Dantidurga has defeated Kirtivarma - II (753 A.D.), Badami Chalukyan king and established independent Rashtrakuta kingdom. Greater part of Telangana used to be in their empire.

Earlier as the feudatory of Western Chalukyan ruler, Vikramaditya - II, has participated in several expeditions and conquered Pallava, Malwa and Gujarat areas. In the battle that was fought in 738 A.D., he has severely defeated the Arabs. Getting happy over this great victory, Vikramaditya - II gave the titles of 'Prithvivallabha' and 'Khadgavaloka' to Dantidurga. The later has occupied Nasik, Poona, Satara and Kolhapur districts. Becoming the overlord of entire Maharashtra, he assumed the titles of 'Maharajadhiraja', 'ParamaMaheswara' and 'ParamaBhattaraka'. By 757 A.D., he has conquered Kanchi, Kalinga, Kosala, Srisailam, Malwa, Lata and Sindhu areas.

Vayamgadh inscriptions and the inscriptions at Dasavatara temple in Ellora of Dantidurga are describing his great war victories. He has invaded Malwa and conquered it and in its capital Ujjaini, he made 'Hiranyagarbha' donation and declared his victory. He has given his daughter in marriage to Pallava king Nandivarma - II. In his short period of rule itself, he has established an extensive Rashtrakuta empire and died in 758 A.D.

Krishna - I (758 - 772 A.D.)

After Dantidurga, Krishna - I ruled Rashtrakuta kingdom. He has carried conquests that were started by Dantidurga. He has occupied Southern Konkan and sent crown-Prince Govinda-II to Vengi. The latter has defeated Vengi Chalukyan ruler Vishnuvardhana - IV and occupied some territory. During the time of Krishna - I rivalry started between the Vengi Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas. Krishna had the titles of 'Subhatunga' and 'Akalavarshudu'. He was also a great patron of art. He has built the Kailasanadha temple (Rock-cut) at Ellora. The construction of this temple nearly went on for hundred years. It has received recognition as world heritage site.

Govinda - II (772 - 780 A.D.)

After Krishna - I, Govinda - II ruled between 772-780 A.D. He won victory in the battle of Gangavadi. He was called as 'Suvarna Govindaraja' and 'Prabhuta Varsha'.

Dhruva Raja or Dhruva (780 - 792 A.D.)

Dhruva killed his brother Govinda - II, ascended the throne and defeated the kings of Kanchi, Gangavadi, Vengi and Malwa. He has defeated the Eastern Chalukyan ruler Vishnuvardhana - IV and married his daughter Seelamahadevi. He had great courage and capacity. Not only Dakshinapatha or South India, he has conquered North India and made the rulers there, as his feudatories. He was the first Rashtrakuta ruler who entered into Tripartite wars. Tripartite wars took place between Pala, Pratihara and Rashtrakuta dynasties. He has defeated Pratihara Kanauj ruler Vatsaraja and as a mark of his victory, he adopted 'Ganga-Yamuna torana' as his kingdom's emblem.

Rashtrakuta kingdom which remained a local kingdom was extended to North India and created a special place for the Rashtrakutas in the history of India. He had the titles of 'Srivallabha', 'Nirupakelivallabha' and 'Daranarva'. As a result of the victories in this expedition, the military strength of the Rashtrakutas and prestige of Rashtrakuta kingdom rose immensely. During his thirteen year rule, Dhruva has expanded Rashtrakuta Kingdom into a vast empire. In all these wars, his sons Stambha, Karka, Govinda and Indra helped him.

Govinda - III (793 - 814 A.D.)

After Dhruva, his son Govinda III, assumed power. He was the greatest among the Rashtrakutas. He had titles like 'Prabhutavarsha', 'Rajadhiraja', 'Rajaparameswara', 'Tribhuvanadhavali', 'Sri Vallabha', 'Janavallabha' and 'Kirthinarayana'.

In Sanjan inscription, his greatness and victories are mentioned. He has fought wars with Pallava, Western Ganga, Ghurjara Pratihara and Pala kings and achieved success. He has defeated Pratihara King, Nagabhata - II. He has ruled for 22 years. He has spent his entire life time in waging wars only. His conquests extended to Chitrakuta, Ujjaini, Bengal, Kalapriya and Ganga-Yamuna coastal plain. The ruler of Simhala country became his friend. Broach ruler, Sribhavana also maintained good relations with him. When Govinda was in Northern expedition, Pallava, Pandya, Kerala and Ganga kings have formed themselves into a confederacy against him. Knowing this, he made lightning attacks on them and by 802 A.D this confederacy was broken. In this way, Govinda III became famous as a great warrior, commander-in-chief and statesman among the Rashtrakuta emperors. During his period, the name and fame of the Rashtrakutas has reached highest level.

Amoghavarsha (814 - 880 A.D.)

After Govinda III, his only son Amoghavarsha has ruled. His original name was Saru. As he happened to be a minor when he came to the throne, his uncle Indra's son, Karka has, as his protector, took up the administrative responsibility of the kingdom.

Amoghavarsha's reign was filled with rebellions, internal conflicts and wars. He has defeated the Vengi king, Gunaga Vijayaditya. In South Indian politics, through marriage alliances, he has strengthened his relations with some royal dynasties. In the South, Gangavadi king, Nitidurga declared his independence. Amoghavarsha defeated him and with political foresight gave back his kingdom to the latter and he gave his daughter Chandrabbalachhen, in marriage to the Ganga king's son Butuga. Another daughter of him Renuka (Revaka) Nirmadi (Sankha) was given in marriage to the Pallava king, Nandi Varma. He gave his sister in marriage to the Vengi - Crown - Prince Vishnuvardhana VII. Eastern Chalukyan ruler, Gunaga Vijayaditya became his feudatory. Not only in political and military fields, but also in religious and literacy fields, Amoghavarsha's contribution has been great.

He was a great poet. He has written 'Kavirajamarga' the first 'alankara' work. He also wrote another work, 'PrasnottaraRatnamalika'. He had the title 'Kaviraja'. Jain poets of his period - Mahavira Acharya and Saktyana wrote respectively 'GanitasaraSangraha' and 'Amoghavritti'.

Amoghavarsha built Manyakheta (Malkhed) city and made it his capital. Arab traveller, Suleman describing the activities of Amoghavarsha has praised him as one of the four great emperors in the world. In order to put a stop to the famine and pestilence in his kingdom, Amoghavarsha has offered his left hand finger as a sacrifice to Mahalakshmi goddess at Kolhapur. Amoghavarsha adopted Jainism. He has observed 'Sallekhanavrata' and died.

Krishna II (880 - 914 A.D.)

After Amoghavarsha, his son, Krishna II, became the king. From his time onwards, the decline of the Rashtrakutas has started. Continuous wars were fought with Pratihara, Kalinga, Ganga and Magadha kingdoms. GhurjaraPratihara king, MihiraBhoja, swooped on Rashtrakuta kingdom.

Eastern Chalukya Kings GunagaVijayaditya has invaded Rashtrakuta kingdom and put Kiranapura, Achalapura and Chakrakuta cities to destruction. He clashed with Chola King, Parantaka and got defeated. Krishna II gave his daughter in marriage to Chola King Aditya - I. The reign of Krishna-II, who has faced defeats in many wars, has shaken the very foundations of the Rashtrakuta Empire.

Later Rashtrakutas

After Krishna II, Indra III (914 - 928 A.D.) ruled. During his time, Arab traveler Al-Masudi visited Rashtrakuta kingdom. Later Amoghavarsha II (928 - 929 A.D.) and Govinda-IV (930 - 936 A.D.) ruled Rashtrakuta kingdom. Govinda IV got disgusted with the rebellions of Mudigonda Chalukyas, gave up the kingdom and ran away. As a result, Amoghavarsha III (936 - 939 A.D.), Govinda IV and Krishna III (939 - 966 A.D.) etc. ruled the Rashtrakuta kingdom.

During the time of Krishna III, Rashtrakuta prestige was restored. He has invaded the Chola kingdom, crown-prince Rajaditya was killed and assumed the title 'Tanjavoor Konda'. In the Takkolam battle, Parantaka Chola I was defeated and victory Pillar was erected at Rameswaram. Not only this, Northern Indian expedition was made and Ujjain ruler, Mahipala was defeated.

After Krishna III, his brother Khottiga became the ruler. He ruled between 967 - 972 A.D. When Malwa king Harshaseyaka has defeated Khottiga and destroyed Manyakheta, Khottiga got highly grief-struck over this insult and died.

Among the Rashtrakutas, last ruler was Karkaraja II (972 - 973 A.D.). During his time, feudatories became independent. Under these circumstances Chalukyan Tailapa, the ruler of Tondawadi and a feudatory, has defeated Karkaraja, killed him and occupied Manyakheta. With this, the rule of the Rashtrakutas has disappeared permanently. Tailapa II has established the rule of the Kalyani Chalukyan dynasty.

The Glory of Rashtrakuta Empire

In the history of India itself, their rule period has attained a distinction. The Rashtrakuta emperors who were unrivalled, daring and war-like qualities were not only able to establish a vast empire that extended from Kanyakubja to Kanyakumari, but were also able to introduce an effective system of administration work for the welfare of the people and became popular rulers. These Rashtrakutas who created heroic age in the history of India, introduced a powerful system of administration and ruled in the interests of the people. In the beginning Ellichpur, Ellora and Paithan cities remained as their capitals and later during Amoghavarsha's reign, Manyakheta used to be the capital.

Administrative System

In Rashtrakuta Empire, king or emperor enjoyed absolute power. He remained independent in statecraft. Authority over the kingdom used to be hereditary. Rashtrakuta kings assumed the titles of 'Maharajadhiraja', 'Dharavarsha' and 'Vikramavaloka'. Though kingship was generally hereditary, there was the practice in those times that, on occasions when a son other than the eldest was found able and efficient, in the interests of the kingdom, he used to be made the ruler. King used to be the commander-in-chief. He used to lead the armies during wars. The king's court which was full of ostentation and splendour, remained as the symbol of king's power and supremacy. Feudatories, foreign ambassadors, poets, doctors, astrologers, higher civil, military and government officials and representatives of the Sreni's or guilds used to attend the king's court.

Ministry

In the administration of the kingdom, ministers used to assist the king. The important among the ministers are used to be called as 'Mahamantri'.

In the ministry, Prime Minister, Finance Minister, Head of the Treasury, Law Minister, Commander-in-chief and Purohita used to be there. Inscriptions have mentioned the posts of 'Mahamatya' and 'Mahasandhivigrahaka'. Kings, officials who were appointed at different places in the kingdom used to be called as 'Rajasthaneeya'.

In Rashtrakuta Empire, some parts of the Empire used to be under the direct rule of the emperor and few others used to be under the rule of the feudatories.

Feudatories used to obey the orders of the emperor, pay tribute and as per the agreement used to supply the armies to the King. Rashtrakuta kings used to take effective measures so as to ensure that the feudatories do not rebel.

Local Administrative System

The kings divided the kingdom into Rashtra, Vishaya and Villages. 'Mahasamanta' or 'Mahamandaleshwara' was the governing head of Rashtra. They belonged to the status of feudatories.

District officials called as 'Vishayapati' and 'Bhogapati' were also appointed by the king only. The governing head of a town was 'Nagarapati'. For village generally 'Gramapati' used to be the head.

Village Assembly, known as 'Mahajanam' belonged to Agraharas. Combined village assemblies generally had farmer assembly.

Army Organisation

Rashtrakutas maintained big armies. According to the opinion of Altekar, their army numbered less than five lakhs. Generally, major part of the army used to be kept in the capital. In the army, infantry used to have greater importance. In their army organization, soldiers belonging to all Varnas are seen. Members of Jainism, such as Bankaya and Sri Vijaya used to be the commanders-in-chief. For the soldiers who died in war, government used to give relief or pension. Commanders just like feudatories, used to enjoy elephants, cavalry and chariots under their control.

Merchants during the time of expeditions used to sell the supplies in a lot for army needs. The police staff of those days consisted of 'Chorodharinukulu' and 'Dandaposikulu'.

Revenue Administration

Land tax was the main source of income to the kingdom. Besides this, a tax known as 'Padenala tax' a tax levied for army maintenance used to be collected. 'Sandhi Vigraha' tax was imposed for the defence of the kingdom. From the native and foreign merchants, heavy duties used to be collected in the form of transit duties and market duties etc. As the monarchical form of government began taking roots, the tax burden on the people began to increase. There are many instances stating that taxes were collected in installments. It could be realized from the information sources of the period that even though taxes, to a greater extent were remitted in the form of grain, payments were also made in cash. If for the sake of business, cotton, betel-nuts and sesamum were cultivated, just like excise tax, additional taxes used to be collected. Further profession taxes have also to be remitted. Craftsmen, such as potter, washerman, barber and blacksmith have to pay profession taxes.

In the same way, there used to be tax on the wheels that drew water for the fields. Among the property taxes, besides land tax, house tax, oil-mill tax, cattle tax, sheep herd tax and shop tax, etc., were there.

Out of the income that was received it is learnt that three parts to army maintenance, one part as reserve fund and 1/12th share for charities, palace and maintenance of the kingdom were utilized.

On an average 15% was left to the Kudivaram, local village officers for the use of the people. Besides this 1/3% from Melavaram used to be given by the Central government for people's welfare activities.

Judicial Administration

The king remained as the main judicial head. Judicial administration was carried through the 'Dharmasana' that belonged to the Grama Sabha. Activities against the king and monarchy used to be examined personally by the king and punishments were awarded.

Economic Conditions

For the economic development of the Rashtrakuta times, agriculture, industries, village crafts and commerce have contributed.

Agriculture

Agriculture used to be the primary basis for the economic organization. Because of the land grants made for the maintenance of the employer, extensive lands have been brought under cultivation. Arab historians have written that in Western India, land was fertile and paddy and fruits were in plenty. It was found that jowar and bajra were cultivated. Mango and toddy gardens used to be in an extensive manner. In Karnataka, betel-nut gardens were grown extensively.

In South India, agricultural land was specially referred to as 'Yeripatti' or 'Cheruvukattu' land. In the entire peninsula, agriculture that depended on tanks was very much prevalent. Agriculturist used to pay as tax one-sixth or one-tenth of the crop from the land. Besides this, for the maintenance of tanks and other irrigation sources, temples and other expenses, agriculturists used to pay several local taxes.

Industries

Textile industry became famous among all the industries. Gujarat, Berar and Telangana remained as important centers for these industries. Clothes that were manufactured in greater quantities used to be exported to foreign countries. It is learnt that persons belonging to different industries got organized into guilds. Besides the cloth and spinning industries, spices, sandalwood, timber, teakwood and leather industries used to be there.

Varied Crafts

It is being learnt that in Rashtrakuta kingdom, in village administration, not only administrative officials, but persons belonging to twelve crafts were there in it and with their cooperation; village administration was going on properly. Grasti, talari, astrologer, blacksmith, potter, carpenter, washerman, barber, village teacher, leather worker and weaver craftsmen were there as part of it. There used to be eighteen crafts people. Farmers, sheep and cattle breeders, handloom weavers, clerks, shop owners, soldiers, artists, scholars and traders. Crafts also found a place in the economic life of those times.

Trade and Commerce

Trading actively did not develop very much. 'Cosmos indico plustess' has mentioned about the trade that went on between the Eastern and Western coastal areas in South India and Western and South West Asian countries. Pepper, Cardamom and Pearls had been the main articles of export. It was clearly evident that during this period there was an increase in the importing of horses from the north western border. Textiles, their related industries, metal industry and carpentry have developed during this period.

For most part, all these got confined to the respective areas only. But trade in 11th and 12th centuries A.D., has received new vigour. Craft guilds, such as 'Manigaram', 'Nanadeseeyulu' and 'Tissaiva Aayutta Aainnurvar' have systematized the trade in the south. Among all these, 'Aainnurvar' or 'Ayyavolepura' '500 Swarnies' has been a trade guild that attained much prominence. They have visited all regions in India and also Persia and Southeast Asian countries. They happened to be the judicial protectors of leading merchants. 'Manigaram' was the local trade guild. 'Nagaram' meant an organized sales centre in South India.

Trade with China and Sri Vijaya countries was an event that deserved recognition during this age. Mahabalipuram, Nagapattanam, Kaveripattanam, Motupalli and Krishnapatnam on the Eastern coast and Chaul, Sopara and Calicut on the Western coast had been famous port towns.

Social Organisation

In South India and Deccan, the social structure essentially remained as per the 'Varnasrama Dharma' and the four-fold division of the Varnas. Inscriptions of all the times have stated that rulers have continued Varnasramadharma.

As Brahmins had prominence in religious and ritual rites, they had occupied a unique and higher place in the society. Just like commanders and ministers, they have taken up military and administrative professions, increased their economic potential and played a significant role. In a similar way as Vedic literature has been studied with exemption of tax, they received Agraharas and 'Brahmadeyas' from the kings as donations. As from 10th and 11th centuries A.D., temples have developed as organizations, it was estimated that the 'Brahmadeyas' have declined. Besides this, as the importance of the craftsmen and merchant classes began to increase, the economic condition of the Brahmins has gone down. Only theoretically religious significance has remained.

On account of invasions, Brahmins resorted to migration. Malkhed Rashtrakutas brought with them many Purohit families. Depending on the geographical divisions in which the Brahmins have resided, sects have developed among them. Ruling class desired that Kshatriya position should belong to them.

Rashtrakutas have been considered as 'Sat-Kshatriyas' a special sub-sect among the Kshatriyas. Ordinary Kshatriyas used to follow the rites and rituals of 'Dvijas'. In order to increase their status, they used to claim or announce that their dynasties belonged to either Chandra or Surya royal dynasties.

Vaisyas belonged to trading and agricultural classes and were called as 'Komaties' and 'Seths'. Right from ancient times, they used to have an integrated organization for carrying on their trading activities.

Sudras mainly took up the occupations of agriculture, agricultural labour and military service. Because of the increased difference between Sudras and Chandalas, Sudras have gained higher status. 'Rattadi' or 'Reddi', 'Vellala' and 'Kapu' has been major Sudra classes.

Until 10th and 11th centuries A.D., craftsmen, labourers and Chandalas remained in lower status only. 'VettiChakiri' was condemned in 'Yasastilaka', a literary work of 10th Century A.D.

Another development that deserved to be noticed was that in this way besides the emergence of landlord farmer class, in Karnataka and Tamilnadu areas in 9th and 10th centuries A.D., 'Gurava' community persons are able to obtain the position of Purohit in the Siva temples.

The emergence of crafts class 'Panchanamvaru' in Andhra and 'Edangai' in Tamilnadu in 11th century A.D., deserves to be noted significantly. New religious movements such as Virasaivism, Aaradhya Saivam and Sri Vaishnavam were patronized by craft classes and landlord farmers.

Progress of Education and Literature

The Rashtrakuta emperors showed lot of interest in the development of education and literature. It is being learnt that they gave lot of importance for the standards of higher education in the kingdom.

For the development of higher education, the Rashtrakuta emperors and rich people used to donate Agraharas and lands to the Brahmins. Agraharas used to be centers for Sanskrit education. Temple areas also got developed as educational institutions. For instance, in 'Trayipurusha' temple at Salatgi in Karnataka region, where a big college was located, it is being learnt that there were 27 hostels in the latter.

Jain and Buddhist religions used to impart their religious education. Students used to come from distant places for the sake of receiving education. Important cities and holy places that were there in the kingdom, developed as educational centers. Malkhed, Nasik and Paithan cities remained as important among them. Vedas, Grammar, Astrology, Literature, Philosophy, Dharmashastra, Puranas, Jurisprudence and Sanskrit education used to be subjects of higher education. Rashtrakuta kings have patronized Sanskrit and Kannada literatures.

In the Dhulia inscription that was issued by Dhruva, the emperor, those who received the grant happened to be scholars in Vedas, Vedangas, Itihasas, Puranas, Grammar, Philosophy and logic. It was stated that Sanskrit grammar was the base for all the Sastras or sciences. It appears that in 975 A.D., land admeasuring 50 Mattaras (might be 200 acres) was donated to a Mutt that was located in Bhujabheswara temple in Dharwad Mandal. In that Mutt, students had free education and food. In the grants that were made to temples, it appears that books for the educational institutions and students were also included. Temples and Agraharas of those days became respectively educational institutions and colleges. There was a Sanskrit educational institution at KaulasAgrahara in Dharwad Mandal. In it, 200 Brahmin families remained well-versed in Grammar, Moral Science, Literature and Puranas.

Literature

Sanskrit was the official language in Rashtrakuta kingdom. Jaina literature flourished in the Rashtrakuta kingdom. During the time of king Krishna III, Halayudha wrote 'Kavirahasayam'. In it, explanation about the use of 'Sanskrit Dhatuvulu' and Prasasti or Praise of emperor Krishna was there. Jinasena was the revered teacher of Amoghavarsha. His 'Adipurana' was completed by his discipline, Gunachandra. 'Adipurana' happened to be the biography of Jain Tirthankaras. Jinasena in his 'Parsvabhyudayam' every sloka line of "Meghasandesam' has been wonderfully applied to the life of Jain Parsva and thereby made meaning coordination. During the time of Amoghavarsha, a work on grammar, titled Amoghavritti and another work titled 'GanitaSaraSangraha' were written respectively by Sakatayana and Ganitayana Viracharya. 'Kavirajamarga', the first work on poetics in Kannada language was authored by Amoghavarsha. He has also written 'Ratnamalika' and 'Neetikavyam'.

Ponna, who was second in triumvarite of Kannada writers, happened to be the court poet of Krishna III. He has written 'Shanti Puranam'. Pampa, the poet, who was first in Kannada triumvarite and a court poet of Vemulavada Chalukyas, who happened to be the feudatories of the Rashtrakutas wrote 'Adipurana' and 'Vikramarjuna Vijayam'.

Architecture

In place of earlier brick and timber associated structures, stone structures and cave temples have been witnessed from the 6th and 7th centuries A.D. The present day Tamilnadu and Kerala areas, and Andhra and Karnataka areas have been referred to as respectively lower Dravidadesa and upper Dravidadesa, whereas the structures in lower Dravidadesa have adopted the Dravidian style, those in upper Dravidadesa stood as symbols for the spread of 'Nagara' style. These are seen in 7th and 8th centuries A.D.

During the time of the Rashtrakutas, cave temples were carved at Ellora. In the first cave, Dantidurga has built the Dasavatara temple. Nandi mandapam in this temple stands as an ancient monument of Rashtrakuta art. Kailasanatha temple at Ellora has been the artistic creation of Krishna I.

This rock-cut temple has sanctum sanctorum, one mukhamandapam and one roofed verandah or hall. Lower store was not of use. This shows us decorative foundation and pillar-like wall with shelves. The surface of the storey of use was also in the same model. In this also, front projected mandapam and entrances on north, south and west. In the center of the roof of the mandapam, a lotus with huge wings has been carved. Its super structure was in four storeys. Main temple of worship, seven small temples around it and one Nandi mandapam are there. In this way, just as it was in vogue in south India, temple plan consisted of eight temples of worship. Gopuram or the tower had two storeys and the upper part had the roof, which stood in the shape of hut-cart. This temple had all the forms of Siva that are there in the science sculpture. It stands as the repository for all the wonderful master pieces of sculpture that explained the episodes in the Puranas of Hinduism.

Other famous structures consist of 'ChhotaKailasa' temple among the cave temples at Ellora, the mandapa in front of 15th cave and the Jain temple at Pattadakal.

Sculpture

The Dasavatara temple was built with wonderful sculpture. Its walls have been decorated with the images of Saiva and Vaishnava Gods and Goddesses. The statue of Narasimha killing Hiranya Kasipa has become famous among all the sculptures of this temple.

In the Kailasanatha temple at the same Ellora, Siva's images have been carved in great style of art. The cave temples that are in Elephanta Island near Bombay, are having highly imposing images in stones.

Among these sculptures, the statue of Maheswara, carved with faces of Trimurtees not only remained as the testimony to the great sculptural art of the Rashtrakutas, but also became world famous. The carving of Maheswara as the personification of creation, stability and destruction is highly commendable.

Painting

The paintings that have been made on the walls and under the roofs of Kailasanadha temple at Ellora, stand as best model for the art of painting of Rashtrakuta times. The paintings of Nataraja, Lingodbhava and Vidhyadharulu have been brought out in attractive colours and striking descriptives.

In painting, for the most part, sculpture style has been closely followed. The paintings in the Jaina cave, called as 'IndraPrabha' at Ellora, have been characterized by beautiful style and broad and wide-open eyes.

Religious Developments

Saivism

Literary and inscriptional sources are proving that Saivism and its sects were in greater prevalence. In Deccan, during the time of the Rashtrakutas, 'Kalamukha' and 'Kapalika' sects came into vogue. Inscriptions of 9th century A.D., are proving that a new non-Brahmin devotee group known as 'Gurava' has come into existence. They have to take oath on bramacharya and then serve as Purohits in Siva temples. Srisailam has come to be recognized as a great 'Kapalika' center.

Vaishnavism

The title 'SreePrithviVallabha' that was borne by the Rashtrakuta kings, perhaps might be to declare themselves as the avatara or the incarnation of Vishnu. The worshipping of the avataras has become as an important characteristic of Vaishnavism. In Deccan and South India, the 'Narayana' concept has become famous. He, and Vishnu in sitting and standing postures have received much propagation. Alvars praised Vishnu in these forms. In all, Vishnu in 'Sayana' or lying posture has been regarded as highest stage meaning as the symbol of other worldliness. The worship of Goddess Lakshmi is another important characteristic of Vaishnavism.

During this time, Srirangam, Kanchi, Ahobilam, Tirumala and Sreekurmam had been Vaishnava centers that attained eminence.

Buddhism

Huien-Tsang, the famous Chinese traveller has mentioned that in Andhra, all permanent Buddhist residences were desolate and there were many temples with Brahmin base. Sriparvatam has attained the status of important center for the worship of 'Vajrapani Dharani'.

Vajrayana Buddhism has gained from 7th century onwards. This got formed as a result of the changes that occurred in Mahayana Buddhism. This is also called as Tantric Buddhism. In it are implied three- Vajrayana, Sahajayana and Kala Chakrayana- an understandable practice.

The teachers or professors in this movement are called 'Siddhus'. Their total number is 84. Kalpanika Vedukas like 'Mantra', 'Mudra' and 'Mandala' are implied in Vajrayana form of worship. By 12th and 13th centuries A.D. Amaravati, Guntupalli, Sriparvatam or Nagarjuna Konda and Salihundam in Andhra, Nagapatnam and Kanchi remained as famous Buddhist centers.

Jainism

During the time of the Rashtrakutas, Jainism had greater prominence than Buddhism and enjoyed patronage and influence. Officials and chiefs who were Jains were appointed in Andhra area and contributed for the spread of Jainism. Akalanka, Pampa and Ponna happened to be great persons who were associated with Jainism. Famous Jain sects - Mulasangha, Yavaneeya and Dravidasangha were in circulation in Andhra. Perur, Danuvulapadu, Vemulapadu, Ramathirtham, Hanumakonda, Patancheru, Kollipaka had been famous Jain centers in Andhra.

In Karnataka region, Rashtrakutas happened to be the chief patrons of Jainism. Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I and a person Chamundaraya, happened to be famous patrons of Jainism. Among the several Jain centers, Sravanabelagola was most famous. In Kartnataka, Digambara Jain sect was in practice.

Conclusion

In this way, Rashtrakutas played a prominent role in the history of South India and Telangana. It is a matter of pride that, Amoghavarsha I, the Rashtrakuta emperor, has been regarded by contemporary Arab traveller, Suleiman as one of the world renowned great emperor. The extension of the boundaries of their empire from Kanuj to Kanyakumari stands as testimony to their military victories, prowess and courage.

Their system of administration was able to achieve nice balance between the strength of the central government and freedom of the local government. Through inscriptions and writings, the Rashtrakuta emperors contributed for the progress of Kannada and Sanskrit languages.

Though they patronized Jainism heavily, they showed tolerant attitude not only towards Hinduism and Buddhism but also Islam and took steps that contributed for their freedom and development. The fact that the Rashtrakutas, besides religion and literature, have also contributed immensely for the development of architecture and sculpture, indicates their great interest and love for cultural development.

Dasavatara temple at Ellora, Kailasanadha Temple at the same place and the statue of Maheswara in Elephanta island stand as great specimens for their rock-cut architecture. Knitting (lesu) method and feat of decoration and are making the viewers spell-bound. Not only in Telangana but even in the history of Dakshinapatha or South India, the period of Rashtrakuta rule is glowing in a striking and complete manner.

Key Exam Point: The Arab traveler Sulaiman described the Rashtrakuta emperor (Amoghavarsha I) as one of the four greatest monarchs of the world, on par with the Roman Emperor, the Caliph of Baghdad, and the Emperor of China.

Complete List of Rashtrakuta Rulers with Period

Ruler	Period	Key Historical Milestones & Exam Facts
Indra Raja I	696 – 710 A.D.	Founder of the family line; ruled Western Telangana and Manyakheta as a feudatory of Badami Chalukyas.
Govindaraja I	710 – 725 A.D.	Feudatory ruler under Badami Chalukyas.
Kanakaraja I	725 – 735 A.D.	Continued feudatory rule under Badami Chalukyas.
Indraraja II	735 – 748 A.D.	Father of Dantidurga; served under the Badami Chalukyan crown.
Dantidurga	748 – 758 A.D.	Real founder of the independent empire. Defeated Badami Chalukyan ruler Kirtivarma II in 753 A.D. Defeated Arabs (738 A.D.); earned titles Prithvivallabha, Khadgavaloka, and Maharajadhiraja. Performed the Hiranyagarbha sacrifice at Ujjain. Began Dasavatara cave temple at Ellora.
Krishna I	758 – 772 A.D.	Uncle of Dantidurga. Titles: Subhatunga, Akalavarshudu. Subdued Konkan and invaded Vengi Chalukya territory. Commissioned the rock-cut Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora (Cave 16).
Govinda II	772 – 780 A.D.	Titles: Suvarna Govindaraja, Prabhuta Varsha. Defeated in the battle of Gangavadi; later deposed by his brother Dhruva.
Dhruva (Dhruva Raja)	780 – 792 A.D.	Titles: Srivallabha, Nirupakelivallabha, Daranarva. First Rashtrakuta king to enter the Tripartite Struggle. Defeated Pratihara Vatsaraja and adopted the Ganga-Yamuna Torana as imperial emblem.
Govinda III	793 – 814 A.D.	Greatest conqueror of the line. Sanjan inscription documents his victories over Pratihara Nagabhata II, Palas, Malwa, and a southern confederacy of Cholas, Pandyas, and Gangas. Titles: Prabhutavarsha, Tribhuvanadhavali, Kirthinarayana.
Amoghavarsha I (Saru)	814 – 880 A.D.	Ruled for 66 years. Established Manyakheta as the imperial capital. Patron of Jainism (disciple of Jinasena). Author of the Kannada poetics classic Kavirajamarga and Sanskrit Prasnottara Ratnamalika. Title: Kaviraja. Observed Sallekhana.
Krishna II	880 – 914 A.D.	Continuous wars with Mihira Bhoja (Pratihara) and Eastern Chalukya Gunaga Vijayaditya. Marked the onset of military decline.
Indra III	914 – 928 A.D.	Briefly revived power; sacked Kanauj. Visited by Arab traveler Al-Masudi.
Amoghavarsha II	928 – 929 A.D.	Short and uneventful reign.
Govinda IV	930 – 936 A.D.	Faced severe internal rebellions from Mudigonda Chalukyas; abandoned the throne.
Amoghavarsha III	936 – 939 A.D.	Restored relative domestic tranquility before passing the crown to Krishna III.
Krishna III	939 – 966 A.D.	Last great ruler. Defeated Chola crown prince Rajaditya at the Battle of Takkolam; erected victory pillar at Rameswaram and claimed title Tanjavoor Konda. Defeated Mahipala of Ujjain.
Khottiga	967 – 972 A.D.	Paramara ruler Siyaka Harsha attacked and sacked Manyakheta; Khottiga died in grief.
Karkaraja II	972 – 973 A.D.	Last emperor. Defeated and killed by feudatory Tailapa II, who founded the Kalyani Chalukya dynasty.