Splendour of Vishnukund Rule
Telangana History & Culture – Exam Notes
Introduction
Vishnukunds have a primary place among the most important royal dynasties in the history of Telugu country. They have not only spread the name and fame of the Telugu country far and wide, but have also introduced several new practices in the fields of religion, language and culture. Starting their political stint on the northern bank of the Krishna river, and extending their empire up to Narmada river, they have, for some time, ruled the area that was between the three seas (Arabian, Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean).
For nearly 210 years i.e., between 358 CE to 569 CE, they ruled primarily Telangana and northern Andhra lying north of the Krishna river. They had their capitals at Amarapuram, Indrapalanagaram, and Denduluru. Amarapuram is taken to be Amrabad, the present day mandal headquarters in Mahaboobnagar district. Indrapalanagaram, which is also called as Sukrapuram, is located on the outskirts of Tummalagudem village in Valigonda mandal of Nalgonda district. Denduluru is located near Pedavegi in West Godavari district. It is also being learnt that between Bezawada in Andhra Pradesh also seems to have been the capital of Vishnukunds some time. Their another capital, being known as Puranisangamam, could be either Sanganigundala in Amrabad mandal, or Sangameswaram near Alampuram. The ruins of an erstwhile town are there on the outskirts of Medimankal village near Sanganigundala.
Sources
The main sources for the study of Vishnukund history are the inscriptions. The history of this dynasty is known not only from the 13 epigraphs that were issued during their period, but also from 8 other inscriptions that were issued during the later period. Among these 21 inscriptions, 16 are copper plate inscriptions and 5 are stone inscriptions. The inscriptions that were issued during the Vishnukund period are as given below:
| # | Name of the Inscription | Region |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Tummalagudem Copper plates-2 | Valigonda Mandal, Nalgonda district |
| 2 | Chaitanyapuri stone inscription | Hyderabad |
| 3 | Keesaragutta stone inscription | Rangareddy district |
| 4 | Saleswaram stone inscription | Amrabad Mandal, Mahaboobnagar district |
| 5 | Velpuru Stone inscription | Sattenapalli, Guntur district |
| 6 | Ipur Copper plate inscriptions-2 | Tenali, Guntur district |
| 7 | Ramatirtham Copper plate inscription | Visakhapatnam district |
| 8 | Chikkulla Copper plate inscription | Tuni, East Godavari district |
| 9 | Tundi Copper plate inscription | Tuni, East Godavari district |
| 10 | Polamuru Copper plate inscription | Ramachandrapuram, East Godavari district |
| 11 | Khanapur Copper plate inscription | Satara district, Maharashtra |
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The coins that were issued by the Vishnukunds, the fort walls, cities and cave temples that they have constructed, and several objects, tools and sculptures etc., that have unearthed in the excavations help in the reconstruction of the history of their times. Writings of the period, such as "Janasraya Chhando vichchitti" and "Sethubandha" do help us in understanding the historical developments of those times.
Birth Place
Vishnukunds called themselves as 'Amarapuriswaras' or 'Lords of Amarapuram' and with the blessings obtained from the feet of the Sriparvataswami, they extended their kingdom on both sides of the Sriparvata. Samudragupta's invasion could be cited as strong reason for this. P.V. Parabrahma Sastry, the historian has informed that starting from Pataliputra (Bihar capital Patna) in northern India, conquests have been made in all directions, all the kings were defeated, and their kingdoms have been given back to them on the condition that they would Hinduise their regional cultures. Among those defeated by Samudragupta, Pallavas were also there who until that time having political authority. After this incident, in the Krishna river coastal area, Vishnukunds became aggressive. They also, like all other kings introduced Sanskritisation by performing Ashwamedha, Rajasuya and other sacrifices, they proudly declared their royal authority. 'Hiranyagarbha' sacrifice was performed and brahmins could get the brilliance of the Kshatriyas.
In the same order, those who rose from Munuluru (present day Munnanore) in Amrabad mandal, the name of the new capital Mamidipuram was referred to as Amarapuram. Umamaheswara temple area, located nearby, became famous for mango groves, especially for tummeda mango trees. Until two decades ago there used to be 'tummeda' mango tree at Umamaheswaram. There used to be a temple under this tree. If the mangoes of this tree are broke open, bees used to come out. In this area, on the name of 'mamidi', there used to be land, (chenu, cheleka) and villages. Near Amrabad, there used to be village called 'Molaka Mamidi'. Mango in Sanskrit is called as 'amram' and bee as 'bhramaram'.
In that way, tummeda mamdidi became bhramaramram. This word is also there in 'Rasaratnakaram' written by Nityananda Siddha of 13th Century A.D. Bhramaramram got changed in to bhramaramba and became the wife of Mallikarjuna at Srisailam. Mallikarjuna, in Sanskrit, gave the meaning of maddi (arjuna) tree, worshipped by Jasmine flowers. Even now also, aged (vriddha) Mallikarjuna idol, made of maddi trunk could be seen on the northern side of inner temple (garbha gudi) at Srisailam.
Finally, it is being said that, Vishnukunds as part of their sanskritisation, their area name 'mamidi vanam' has been changed to Amrapuram and Amarapuram. As the Vishnukunds followed Vedic religion, and as Indra happened to be the prime God in the Vedas, on his name Amarapuram, and on his another name Sakrapuram, and later their another capital Indrapalanagaram have all been adopted in Sanskrit.
Vishnukunds performed sacrifices (yajnas). They donated agraharas to the Brahmins. Their inscriptions mention that they have dug tanks and wells. Their physical sources are many and are available at Amrabad and Munnanur areas. Vishnukund sacrificial altar and bath place were noticed near an old temple at Pratapagirikota (fort) near Munnanur. Vishnukunds seem to have donated to the Brahmins, a village called Brahmanapalli as an agrahara which is located towards the north of this fort. Perhaps, the Brahmins of this village got thousands of sacrifices performed by the Vishnukunds.
It is true in the inscriptions that Govindaraju, one of the earliest kings of Vishnukund dynasty has donated Prenkapora and Enmadala villages to Paramabhattarika Vihara; built at Sakrapuram (Indrapalanagaram) by is queen, Paramabhattarika devi. The name of Enmadala has changed to Elmala and is still there in Amrabad mandal. However, there is also a village with a similar name in Nalgonda district. Further, on Prataparudra Fort and its surroundings there are many ancient tanks. Among them, some might have been dug by the Vishnukunds only.
Inscriptions also mention that the Vishnukund king Madhava Varma installed Dantamukha Swamy (Ganapati) idol in the Bhutagrahaka Swamy (Yama) temple at Amarapuram. Eminent historian V.V. Krishna Sastry and Thakur Rajaram Singh have stated that there are several burials of Stone Ages and they have collected some among them. These could still be seen in the south-western and eastern directions of their village. As hundreds of burials are there, a temple for Yama (the God of deaths) was built in this village. Next, a black Ganapati idol of four feet height could be seen even today outside Amrabad village towards the east. The first generation idols of Ganapati used to have no crown. Even the Amrabad Ganapati idol does not have a crown. Hence, this was installed by the Vishnukunds only. Just adjacent to this idol, there is the "Venkayya Baavi". The inscriptions state that prayers were offered to this Ganapati even in the later centuries. Hence, as narrated in the inscriptions, it was for the comfort of the devotees, Vishnukunds might have dug this tank. Near Amrabad there are two villages by the name Madhavonipalle and Macharam. These also seem to have been named after Vishnukund kings Madhava Varma and Manchanala. Reason being that the remains of their days are being seen in these villages.
As per the details that collected and published by B.N.Sastry, it is understood from the Kotappakonda sthala mahatmyam that 'Tripurantakam' means the combination of Rudrasikharam, Vishnusikharam and Brahmasikharam, among them, on the top and below the Bahmasikharam, a devotee, named Salankayya, had constructed temples for Siva and a saivite devotee Anandavalli, and the deity of the temple is known as Kotappa. These details, with few differences, are being seen in the 'Parvata Prakaranam' of 'Panditaradhya Charitra', written by Palkuriki Somanatha.
Somanatha has stated that on Sriparvata to its south 'Gunda Tirtham' in pot shape 'mallikakundam' and in their front 'moksheswaram' and in the west Brahmeswaram are there. Even now also, at 10 KMs distance from Munnanore, Gundam Tirtham (water falls), at 30 KMs distance Mallikakundam (mallela Tirtham) and in their front, Sarveswaram or Saleswaram, could be seen. In the two-storeyed caves at Saleswaram, there are brick (18 X 10 X 12 inches) walls of Ikshvaku times; brick (16 X 10 X 2½ inches) walls of Vishnukunds and early Chalukyas and inscriptions of both the times. Brahmeswaram is there in the northeastern region of Munnanore. Mallappa gutta (hillock) is there to the southeast of that village. On it, Mallappaswami temple, small Brahmi inscription on the latter's wall, and on the edge of tank that is there down the former, there is a temple with Vishnukund emblems (pots, and pouncing lions). Coming to Anandavalli temple built by Salankayya, it is located down the Prataparudra fort, in the northwestern corner and three roads corner turning. As Anandavalli, being a virgin, by Siva's blessing gave birth to a son, she was treated as spoilt by the people and her head was shaved. Later, after recognizing Siva's greatness, a temple was built for her, she was called as clean-shaver goddess. That idol, yellow Sivalinga that was in its front, got damaged in 1965-66 at the time when a road was being laid there.
On the whole, as the Kundalu (around 50) that are mentioned in archaeological, epigraphical and literary sources, are being seen in the areas of Munnanoor and Amrabad in Mahaboobnagar district, Vishnukunds might have risen from one of those Kundams, and essentially from the Mallela Tirtham plain area.
Political Developments
Till 355 CE, the Ikshvakus ruled districts in the middle of Andhra Pradesh, with Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda) as capital and lying on both sides of Krishna river. They were defeated by the Pallavas of Kanchi in the south who now brought under their control Krishna river region upto Srisailam. But soon, in 358 CE, the Gupta king, Samudragupta who ruled from Pataliputra (Present Patna, the capital of Bihar) the northern and Central India had defeated the Pallavas in his victorious southern expedition and returned back. Taking this as an advantage, the Anandagotrins (Kandara kings) who, earlier, were the feudatories of the Ikshvakus in the Krishna-Guntur region and Salankayanas in the Vengi region (Eluru) and others have declared themselves independent. In Telangana, the Vishnukundins became independent.
From then onwards, the Vishnukunds ruled the Telangana region for some time (first half of 5th Century CE) and Maharashtra area for nearly 200 years. Nearly ten are seen among the Vishnukund kings. But, among them as three or four Indravarmas and Madhavavarmas are seen, it becomes difficult to determine who ruled after whom. However, the chronology of the kings indicated below, being agreed by majority of the historians:
| # | King | Reign Period |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Indra Varma | 358–370 CE |
| 2 | Madhava Varma I | 370–398 CE |
| 3 | Govinda Varma | 398–440 CE |
| 4 | Madhava Varma II | 440–495 CE |
| 5 | Deva Varma | 495–496 CE |
| 6 | Madhava Varma III | 496–510 CE |
| 7 | Vikramendra Varma I | 510–525 CE |
| 8 | Indrbhattaraka Varma II | 525–555 CE |
| 9 | Vikramendra Varma II | 555–569 CE |
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Manchanna Bhattaraka is also said to have ruled for some time around 570 CE in the Amrabad region. The first two kings have started their political career in the south Telangana in Mahaboobnagar and Nalgonda districts. Thus, they made it easy for the later kings to expand their territory.
Govinda Varma had expanded the Vishnukund kingdom on both sides of the Sriparvata (Srisailam-Nagarjunakonda) with his physical prowess. He occupied upto the Gundlakkamma river by defeating the Pallavas. He married the daughter of a powerful local chief Mularaja of Gunapasapuram in the coastal Andhra. With his help, Govinda Varma defeated the Salankayanas of Vengi and annexed their kingdom with his kingdom. On the northern side, areas that are on the other side of the Musi river, were also in his kingdom. As proofs to this could be mentioned, stone inscription of his time formed at Chaitanyapuri in Hyderabad and Vishnukund fort and temple remains on the Keesaragutta on the outskirts of Hyderabad. There is Kesari vagu(stream) below the Keesaragutta. The area on the bank of Kesari Vagu is Gattukesari. It is now called as Ghatkesar. Kesari means lion. It is the emblem of the Vishnukund. One such royal seal is found recently on Keesaragutta.
The greatest among all the Vishnukund kings was Madhava Varma II (440–495 CE). He fought and won several battles (more than 100) and as a mark of his victory in each battle, he installed Sivalingas on Keesaragutta. He has also built Ramalingesvaraswamy temple at every place where he won the battle. Even till today these Ramaligesvara temples built at Velpuru (Guntur district, Sattenapalli taluk), Ipur, Indrapalanagarm, and Keesaragutta are receiving acts of worship.
Some of the victories of Madhava Varma II can be mentioned as following. With the help of Prabhakara, his relative and ruler of Gunapasapuram, Madhava Varma occupied Kalinga (northern coastal Andhra and south Odisha). In his 33rd regnal year, he attacked Pallavas and expanded the Vishnukund kingdom up to Gundlakamma river again. In the west, the Vakataka kings of Maharashtra were very strong. Madhava Varma defeated the last ruler of the main Vakataka line, Prithvisena (460–480 CE) and married his daughter.
With the above-mentioned victories, the empire of Madhava Varma II extended from the Bay of Bengal in the East to the Arabian sea in the West, and from Southern ocean (perhaps Pulicat Lake) in the South to Reva (Narmada river) in the North. There is no exaggeration in this, many feudatories fell on his feet. One of his inscriptions was found in Maharashtra. Vishnukund coins were found all over Maharashtra. Madhava Varma II had an epithet 'trivara nagara bhavnagata sundari hridayanandana' which means (the one who brought happiness to the beautiful maidens living in the buildings of the city of Trivara). In this epithet, the reference to Trivaranagaram can be identified as the city of Tripuri or Tevar located near Jabalpur on the banks of river Narmada. While V.V. Mirasi identified Trivaranagaram as South Kosala (Bastar), the capital of Trivaranaraja, the king of Pandu dynasty, some other historians argued that it was the capital of the kings of Somadynasty who ruled from the Northern Kalinga. Whatever may be the actual location of the Trivaranagaram, it is clear that the kingdom of Madhava Varma II extended up to the Narmada and Mahanadi rivers in the North.
Vishnukunds and Pallavas were always engaged in wars. Hence, in order to prevent to the Pallava invasions, Madhava Varma II shifted his capital to Dendulurupura located near Vengi. He also raised the walls and strengthened the fort of Amarapuri, which was his first capital and appointed his eldest son, Deva Varma as the royal representative.
Vishnukund inscriptions mention that Madhava Varma II, in order to announce his victories, had performed 11 Ashwamedha sacrifices, 16 Rajasuya sacrifices and thousand sacrifices such as Vajapeya, Purushamedha and others. It seems even Gods have appreciated his judicial systems. It is being learnt that a book on Chandas (metre) 'Janasraya Chandovichhitti', which began with its title 'Janasraya' was written by him only. As he, in this way, became great in many things, he was taken as the founder of the dynasty by many kings, starting from the Kakatiyas.
Vikramendra Varma I succeeded his father Madhava Varma II. He was known as 'Vishnukundi Vakataka Vamsadwayalankara Janma' - one who was related by birth to both the Vishnukund and Vakataka dynasties in the sense that he was born to Madhava Varma II, his Vishnukund father and Vakatadevi his mother from the Vakataka family. He had the title of 'Mahakavi'. Taking advantage of his literary activity or preference, Madhava Varma III, son of Deva Varma declared his independence at Amarapura. This Madhava Varma completely exterminated Kandara (Anandagotrika) dynasty, and wore their title, 'Trikuta Malayadhipa'. It means that he brought their territory under his control. Irrespective of other things, Vikramendra Varma, either driven from the Vakataka throne or coming from his capital Denduluru, he has suppressed Madhava Varma III, and ruled Vishnukund kingdom for about 15 years (510–525 A.D.).
After Vikramendra Varma, his son Indra Varma II succeeded to the throne. But, he was attacked by Madhava Varma III, with the help of Chalukyan king Pulakesi. In support of this inscription on which the title 'Ranavikrama' of Pulakesi, are found in Yeleswaram. Because of this association, Chalukyas, like the Vishnukunds, began to wear titles with the word 'asraya'. Ignoring other things, Indra Varma II has defeated Madhava Varma II and his other relatives (Palivandlu) and might have joined Amarapuri kingdom into 'Rajakshetram' or his territory. While this was going on, in the North-east, the Kalinga feudatories had formed into an alliance to fight against Indra Varma II. In this battle, Indra Varma II emerged victorious and saved his kingdom. Maukhari King, Esana Varma of North India has claimed that he has conquered Salika and Andhra Kings. This indicates that in his victorious campaign in the south, Esana Varma had defeated Indra Varma. Vindicating this, the latter had contracted matrimonial alliance by giving his daughter Indrubhattarikadevi in marriage to Sarva Varma, the son of Esana Varma. Indra Varma II, maintained friendship and relationship with them.
After the death of Indra Varma II, his minor son Vikramendra Bhattaraka Varma was brought to the throne by the council of ministers. His epithet 'Sakala Bhuvana Rakshabharanaikasraya' suggests the huge extension of his kingdom. During his 11th regnal year, Pallava king, Simhavaramai attacked the Vishnukund kingdom. The battle took place in about in about 566 CE in the environs of Dhanyakataka in Guntur district and it appears that Vikramendra Varma received the help of Prithivimula. Leaving aside other things, Vikramendra Varma II gained victory in their battle, and as a mark of this, he has given donations to the Vihara of Paramabhattarika Devi in Indrapalanagaram. At the same time, in Pishtapuram, Prithvimaraja declared his independence. The districts of Godavari, Khammam and Nalgonda used to be in his kingdom.
Collecting his army for sometime, Vikramendra Varma II made an attack on Prithivimaharaja. But in this battle, Vikramendra Varma II died. With this, Vishnukund dynasty disappeared within a short time. As a result, Prithvimula also became independent and ruled over the Godavari district areas.
From the decline of the Vishnukund kingdom in 569-590 CE, for half a century, i.e., up to 617 CE., Prithvimaraja in South-eastern Andhra, and Prithvimaraja in Guntur-Krishna and Godavari districts, have carried on their rule. Both these were defeated in 617 CE by Pulakesi II, Badami Chalukya ruler and thereby, the latter has extended his kingdom into Telangana and Andhra areas.
Administrative System
The rule of Vishnukunds has been great from many angles. Though they acquired the kingdom with their own prowess and physical strength, their stating that they gained the authority to rule over the people by serving at the feet of Sriparvataswamy and also carving the word 'Sriparvata' on their coins, speak about their humility and loyalty. They had good qualities of humility and enthusiasm. They earned fame on account of proper and popular rule. Because of their proper rule, monks, orphans, beggars, disease-ridden persons, distressed people, etc., also used to earn in a just manner. They have extended protection to the Brahmins and their employees. In other words, they gave lands, villages and posts to them, and they could see that through their efforts, peace and prosperity prevailed among the people. They were also donated thousands of servants and servant maids, cots, chairs, travel equipments, food and water, buildings and jewellery were donated. Girls were also donated. With these, they earned name and fame among the poor. It seems Madhava Varma always used to serve at the feet of his parents. From these, it could be understood that the Vishnukunds desired people's welfare, and hence, people enjoyed comfort and happiness under their rule.
After the Satavahanas, only the Vishnukunds get the credit of ruling an extensive empire in the Deccan. For nearly 50 years, the States of Maharashtra, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh used to be under their rule. However, Telangana and Coastal Andhra, lying north of Krishna river remained for a greater period. Because they have ruled over such a vast empire, the Vishnukunds assumed the title 'Maharaja'. Further, they provided protection to all types of people. Consequently, they adorned the title such as 'Sakala Bhuvanaikasraya, Janasraya, Satyasraya, Uttamasraya and Vikramasraya'. Because of this, they set an example for the later generation rulers. Accordingly, later period Chalukyan wore 'asraya' titles. Kakatiyas referred to Madhava Varma as their dynastic founder. The kings of Pithapuram and Velamas also mentioned the same thing in their records.
Vishnukunds were known for their 'just' rule. Madhava Varma had discovered the legal duties known as 'Divyalu'. It seems when the chariot of a prince has, due to unmindfulness, gone over the son of a lady selling tamarind and the boy got killed, Madhava Varma has imposed death sentence for the Prince. Becoming happy over this, Malliswaraswamy could make the gold rain at Bezawada and gave life to the Prince and the son of lady selling tamarind. This was found in the inscription there. The same details are there in the later day literary works (Nachiketopakhyanam, Prabhodha Chandrodayam, Panchatantram, etc.). In that way, Vishnukunds, by strength, truth and sacrifice and such other good qualities, earned fame. In that way, they displayed their splendor more than the brahmins and Kshatriyas. As Madhava Varma had the title 'hiranyagarbha', it could be said that the Vishnukunds who performed hiranyagarbha were first local Sudras of the Telangana region.
In the Vishnukund kingdom, the king was all powerful and a despot. In administrative matters, his was the final decision. However, the king's decisions were in accordance with the opinion and welfare of the people. Even the opinion of Council of Ministers were given due place in the King's Court. Sometimes, they even used to install the King on the throne. It seems Madhava Varma has imposed death sentence to his son only after discussing the matter with the legal luminaries. Vishnukunds used to provide shelter to warriors and employees. Vishnukunds kingdom was divided into Provinces, Provinces into Vishayas and Vishayas in to villages. Rashtrawas governed by Rashtrika. In Vishnukund kingdom, there used to be Provinces, such as Paraki Rashtra, Plekki Rashtra, Karma Rashtra, and Kalinga Rashtra. Vishadhipati was the governing head of a Vishaya. In Vishnukund kingdom, Vishayas such as Grudhranadi Vishaya and Netrapati (Natavadi) Vishaya were there. Besides these administrative divisions, there was the practice of appointing King's son as 'Yuvaraja' for some part of the kingdom. Further, some feudatory states, remaining subordinate to the Vishnukund kingdom, ruled their areas. It is there in the inscriptions that several samantas (feudatories) under Madhava Varma, anya samantas and sakala samantas under Govinda Varma used to be there. Among them, Vishnukunds had matrimonial relations with some of them. Even those also contributed for the protection and extension of Vishnukund kingdom. In administering his kingdom, Vishnukund king was assisted by Yuvaraja, Mahamatya, Amatya, Intelligence Officer, Secret Adviser and such other officials.
As a measure of protecting and expanding the kingdom, Vishnukunds have constructed several forts. The newly constructed forts were named in such a way that their names gave meaning similar to Amarapuram, the first capital. In that way, we come across Indrapalanagarm in Ramannapet taluk of Nalgonda district, Indrakeeladri in Bezwada and Indur in Nizamabad. Indur and Keesara gutta might have been their local settlements. Denduluru near Vengi had been their another capital. In order to protect their capital from the invasion of Pallavas, they have built in Amrabad area the biggest fort in Telugu country (The length of wall of this fort stood around 200 kilometers). Wall of this fort used to be constructed always. Hence, it became proverbed in the sense that if anyone in that region was found constructing a wall in the house compound since a long time, they began to state that the construction work is going on since a long time, just like the construction of Patalabhadruni fort.
Economic Development
The villages of Vishnukund times had self-sufficient economy. In other words, the farmers and other occupational groups lived, each depending on the other. The kings took steps for the development of agriculture. Besides the agraharas, the Brahmins were also donated farmers who were cultivating and some servants and maid servants. Brahmins who had knowledge about the seasons, used to develop agriculture with the help of the servants. In that way, new lands were brought under cultivation. Inscriptions of the Vishnukunds indicate that they have dug many wells and tanks for agriculture. Through them wet crops used to be cultivated. In those days, land used to be measured in terms of nivartanas.
In the Vishnukund kingdom, domestic and foreign trade was also carried on. Their coins are found at Yeleswaram, Bhuvanagiri, and Sultanabad (Karimnagar district) in Telangana and Bojjannakonda and Elamanchili (Visakhapatnam district) in Andhra Pradesh, and Nasik, Khamapur, Nagpur in Maharashtra, and Brahmagiri in Madhya Pradesh and other places. Hence, it can be said that internal trade was carried out at these places during their period. External trade has grown after the occupation of Vengi from the Salankayanas and the kingdom of the Kalingas. More of Vishnukund coins being found in coastal Andhra, ship mark being found on them, and Madhava Varma II having the title of 'trisamudradhipati' are indicating the importance of foreign trade. Foreign trade used to be carried on from the Eastern coast port towns, such as Motupalli and Kodur with the Eastern countries, such as Burma, Siam, Cambodia, China, Japan, Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Malaya Arakan and Western Countries, such as Egypt, Rome, Greece and other countries. Vadapalli, Bezawada, Amaravati, Motupalli, Ghantasala, Kodur, Alampuram-Kudalisangam and other places on the banks of river Krishna, mainly carried on international trade and now and then took up foreign trade also. In the excavations conducted at Kudali Sangameswaram near Alampuram, a gold coin of Roman Emperor Constantine (306-337 CE) was discovered along with some other coins. From these, it becomes clear that the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab region was a centre for foreign trade and commerce even before the Vishnukunds and this continued even during the Vishnukund period.
The Chinese traveller Fa-Hien wrote that during the beginning decades of the 5th century CE, shells were also used as currency in the Vishnukund kingdom. Another Chinese traveller, Huien-Tsang had written that full-size golden statues of Buddha are there at Sriparvata. These were not found, but, however, copper Buddha statue of (of CE 4-5 centuries) measuring about one to five inches were found at Buddham and Amaravati. From these, it is becoming known that the carpenters, were highly skillful in their work. A snuff box made out of cast iron and in the shape of a mango bud, and measuring 7 centimeters, which was found on Keesaragutta, stands as another testimony for this. On the whole, as the inscriptions are stating that during the Vishnukund period that sufficient wealth was there so that the monks, Brahmins, orphans beggars, diseased, poor and the destitute could have that much justly-earned wealth that they could lead and enjoy their lives, we could say that economy of those time was strong.
Social Conditions
The inscriptions of Vishnukunds state that "they adhered to the varnasramadharma which is associated with giving gifts and donations". It seems that Govinda Varma used to respect varnasramadharma. In this way, they tried to see that all the four varna people - the brahmana, Kshatriya, vaisya and sudra castes - followed their professional duties. But it becomes clear that the first two castes seem to have greater respect. The importance of brahmana and Kshatriya castes is known from the title 'parama brahmanya' borne by some of the Vishnukund rulers; by assuming "brahma-kshatra" brilliance and by performing 'hiranyagarbha' sacrifice and then wearing that title. In other words, Vishnukunds who had been Sudras, appeared to have, by performing many sacrifices, climbed to this status of upper castes. They gave many agraharas to the Brahmins. They also respected higher caste members by giving them posts. Vaisyas were engaged in the internal and external trade. Among the Sudras, carpenters, sculptors, and handloom weavers and others used to have rightful place. As the farmers form the backbone for the country, the Vishnukund kings used to donate agraharas and land grants to some of the farmers. Further, servants and servant maids were also used to be donated in thousands. Agricultural and trade development might have taken place due to them, but it becomes understandable that their human rights have been violated. Perhaps, in those days when males were sacrificed in Purushamedha sacrifices, donating servants and servant maids might not appear big or serious. However, the 'kanyadanas' or offering girls in marriage, made the parents of the girls, father-in-law and mother-in- law, bride and bridegroom happy. Further, Vishnukunds have also donated other needy items that were required for sleep, sitting, drinking, eating and also building and jewellery. In this way, several donations that were made by the Vishnukund kings have not only caused happiness to the people, but also might have spread among the latter the habit of donating to the extent possible within their limits. Madhava Varma used to serve always at the feet of his parents. From this, it could be said that the people of those times might be having reverence and regard towards their parents and elders.
Cultural Development
Vishnukunds were the followers of Vedic religion. Sriparvataswamy was their family deity. Their names indicate that they were the followers of Vedic religion and their titles, such as 'Paramamaheswara' and 'Parama Brahmanya' suggest that they were the devotees of Siva and the followers of brahmanical religion. Sometime before the Vishnukunds became independent rulers, in the Allahabad inscription that was issued by Samudragupta, after defeating the king of Srisailam region, 'Paramabhattaraka Padanudjyatasya' was there. This has close resemblance with 'Sriparvataswamy Padanudhyatasya' in the Vishnukund inscriptions. The name 'Paramabhattarikadevi', wife of Govinda Varma, first generation Vishnukund king, also seems to be the name of Gupta's beloved Goddess. There are some devotion-related stories regarding Sriparvataswamy or Srisaila Mallikarjuna Swamy who had close affinity with Chandravati (Sandravati), who was the daughter or sister of king Chandragupta. The ruins of Guptamaheswara temple, stated to have been installed by her, are there even now to the North of Umamaheswara temple and below the Prataprudra fort, on the northwest corner and to the south of road, and at a furlong distance. It appears that Madhava Varma II, after marrying Vakatakadevi, Vishnukunds did not patronize religions other than Vedic-brahmana religion. Vakatakas were the relatives of Guptas. Because of this, just like Guptas, they have followed only Vedic-brahman religion. The influence of Vakatakas might have fallen on the Vishnukunds. On the whole, it could be understood that, due to the influence of Guptas and Vakatakas, Vishnukunds got sanskritised and became the followers of Vedic-brahmana religion.
Vedic-Puranic Religion
Even though Vishnukunds have patronized Buddhism as it was very much popular among the people in C.E. 4th and 5th Centuries, even in it also, it appears that they made donations more to Brahmins only. Whatever might be, Vishnukunds in reality remained the followers of Vedic and Puranic religion. All their names related to Vedic and Vaishnava faith. Indrabhattaraka Varma and his son, Vikramendra Varma, assumed the titles of 'Parama Maheswara'. Vishnukunds have acknowledged that due to 'Sriparvataswamy Padanudhyanam' (worshipping at the feet of Sriparvataswamy) they could get the governing authority over the people. On their coins also, they got carved the word 'Sriparvata'. In Sriparvata padam (foot) only, (Uma) Maheswara temple is there. This is there in Amrabad mandal. It became famous as the Northern gateway of Srisailam Devasthanam. Srisaila Mallikarjuna also became popular with that name during the time of Vishnukund only.
With the orders of Madhava Varma II, in his 33rd regnal year, idol installations of war-drum and Dantamukhaswamy (Ganapati) have taken place (C.E.489). All the people used to worship at this idol. Very much going in line with these details, Venkaiah (Ganapati) idol was there outside Amrabad village. Nearby to this Venkaiah idol, are there Venkaiah bavi (well) and the ruins of Siva-Parvati temple. Few kilometers of distance from this, and in hills, Ganeswara temple was there. War-drum is now in the compound of Umamaheswara temple. Inscriptions state that Govinda Varma has constructed several 'divayatanas'. The temples that were constructed by the Vishnukunds were there in their early capital in Amrabad mandal, located in the valleys of Nallamala forests, under the waterfalls and in caves.
Anandagotris or Kandara kings (Atti Varma) who were the contemporaries of the Vishnukund and who ruled the areas to the east of Vishnukund kingdom, have worshipped 'Sambhu' or Vanakeswaram. One Vankeswaram is there in Amrabad mandal only. The name of Kandara Princess 'Avanitalantavati' is also indicating Amrabad plateau only. Surprisingly, the Akkanna-Madanna caves and the temples that Akkanna-Madanna were stated to have constructed, were all actually constructed by Vishnukund king Madhava Varma II. Among such structures, Akkanna-Madanna caves in the Kanaka Durga group of temples at Indrakeeladri at Bezwada, the temples on Keesaragutta stated to have been built by Akkanna-Madanna and Maheswara temple on the outskirts of Hyderabad, could be shown as examples. In reality all these were built by Madhava Varma II. As there are similarities, in promoting Hinduism, the name of Madhava Varma might have been taken for Akkanna-Madanna (C.E 17th Century).
Madhava Varma II built many temples dedicated to Ramalingeswara. Whenever he won a battle, he constructed those temples. In that way, we have Ramalingeswara temple at Velpuru in Sattanapalli taluk of Guntur district, at Ipur, and Keesaragutta, receiving worships till today. There is a reference to Rama in the 'place of history' (sthala charitra) of Umamaheswara temple in Amrabad mandal. To the southeast of this temple, foot prints of Rama are there. From these it becomes clear that there also, in the beginning, Ramalingeswram only was there. To the North of Umamaheswara temple, and by the side of way leading to Munnanoor, Pallaveswara temple was there. Pallavas who made attacks on Vishnukunds twice or thrice, have constructed this as a sign of their victory. Taking que from this Madhava Varma II, as marks for the several victories that he achieved, he made installation of Sivalingas on Keesaragutta at the rate of one for each victory. As the Vishnukunds were Vaishnavas, Sivalingas are called Ramalingas. The same practice was followed by Eastern Chalukya king Vijayaditya II who, as a mark of his 108 victories, built 108 Bhimeswara temples. Madhava Varma II was described as 'Snanapunyodaka pavitrikrita sirshah' (the one whose head was purified by the sacred waters). From this, it is learnt that during his time, pilgrimages and bathing in sacred waters assumed great importance. Vikaramendra Varma donated Regent village as devabhoga to Triyambakanatha temple or God Somagiriswaranatha in Netrapati vishaya.
Vishnukunds also donated along with villages, lands, old chariots, horses, cows, cots, arts, water, food, houses, ornaments, girls and thousands of servants. Vishnukunds performed several sacrifices and rituals. Madhava Varma II had a reputation of performing sacrifices such as 'Ekadasaswamedha, Avabritha, Avodhauta, Jagatkalmasha, Agnistoma, Bahuswarna, Purushamedha, Vajpeya Shodarajasuya, Prajapatyaneka Paundarika Sata Sahasrayojino'. The practice of donating thousands of servants and girls and sacrificing men in the yajnas indicate the prevailing inequalities in the then society. The avabritha bathing ghat present in the Munnanoor fort, is still seen as a great memory of the sacrifices performed by the Vishnukunds.
Buddhism
By the first phase of the Vishnukund rule, Buddhism had huge spread in the society. The first generation Vishnukund rulers, in order to respect the majority opinion, have patronized Buddhism, though they themselves were the followers of Vedic religion. In that way, Govinda Varma had donated in his 37th regnal year on the full moon day of Vaisakha month, for providing light, sandal flowers, dhwaja water, food, sleep, arama, grasa, medicine, and other essentials to the mahavihara built by Queen Paramabhattarika, his wife in Indrapalanagara, to one Dasabalabali who was well-versed in 18 branches of Buddhist Dharma, while addressing the 14th Arya Sangha Penkaparra village along with its resources and forests. He has also donated to the same sangha the village of Enmadala. For the same vihara, Vikramendra Varma has donated Irrundero village for the enjoyment of monk sanghas in the year 566 CE. Govinda Varman's uncle Prithivimula had constructed a mahavihara named Tokhalikhata in the capital Gunapasapuram (East Godavari district). His son, Harivarma, constructed another mahavihara at Gunapasapuram. To this, he donated Kattacheruvu village. He has also built Sekya bhikshu vihara near Tatikonda.
Inscriptions are informing that Govinda Varma had installed many beautiful mahaviharas and Vikramendra Varma had made donations to the sacred Buddhist monk sanghas were existing in different areas. This indicates that, Vishnukund kings might have constructed on Buddhist arama viharas on all four sides of their kingdom, or might have undertaken major repairs and extensions to the already existing ones. As proofs for this stand even today, Govindaraja vihara in Chaitanyapuri colony in the surroundings of Hyderabad; Buddhist ruins at Keesaragutta and Kondapuram; arama, stupa, viharas at Phanigiri and Gajulabanda in Nalgonda district and stupas, aramas at Nelakondapalli in Khammam district. In the excavations conducted at Phanigiri in 2011, six aramas have come to light. In each arama there were seen rooms. Even in Andhra Pradesh, Buddhist constructions were there at Jaggayyapeta, Salihundam, Ramatirtham, Thotlakonda, Bojjanakonda, Buddharam and other places. But most of these sites were there already. However, in respect of these, extension activities have been taken up on a larger scale during the Vishnukund period.
Saleswara vihara could be cited as an example for this. This was there in Amrabad mandal of Mahaboobnagar district, situated on the northern or left bank of Krishna river in a valley tucked in hills of Nallamala forest. A vihara was built here during the time of the Ikshvakus for the sake of Buddhist monks. As proofs for this are seen even today, brick (18×10×2½ inches) structures of Ikshvaku times, Brahmi script inscriptions and brick (10×10×2½ inches) structures of later period, rock structures and ancient Telugu-Kannada script inscriptions. The Hinayana sect of Buddhism, used to be there at Chaitanyapuri in Hyderabad. There, on a big rock lying near Konagundla Narasimhaswamy cave temple, a Prakrit inscription in six rows. In it was mentioned that Bhadanta Sanghadeva, a Buddhist has constructed a rock house for the use of those persons who would be offering sandal and clothes to the Govindaraja vihara. It deserves to be noted that Govindaraja vihara that was mentioned in it, and the rock house remaining on the bank of Musi river and at 60-70 kilometres distance from this and again on the bank of Musi river, Indrapalanagaram, the capital city of Vishnukunds taking its place. This Chaitanyapuri inscription happens to be the most ancient inscription that is found in Hyderabad region. This is of the beginning of C.E. 5th Century.
At Keesaragutta which was only at few kilometres distance from Hyderabad, traces of Mahayana Buddhism are being seen. As proof to this, we can see the metal statue of Mahayana founder, Acharya Nagarjuna, which was collected by the historian, Sri Kurra Jitendrababu. In this connection, the hood of snake remaining over the head of sitting person, reminds us of the case of the statue of 23rd Jain Tirthankara. Hence, if this is true, we have to say that in Keesaragutta region, in those days, Jainism also flourished. Further, if Pudhagiri that is mentioned in this inscription is same as Pandava Parvatam (near Patna), lying nearer to Rajagriha, the capital of Magadha, we have to say that a vihara, which is allied with maha vihara of Theravadis at Rajagriha, might have been there at Chaitanyapuri. Pindapatikula mentioned in this inscription were a special branch belonging to Hinayana Buddhism. It is written in one inscription that there used to be 18 branches in Buddhism and Dasabalabali was the great person who know about all of them. There used to be several sanghas in these branches. 14th Arya Sangham was one among them. For Asanapura Arya Sangham, Vikramendra Varma got constructed Trilokesraya Rajamahavihara, and for its representative, Sanghadasa, has donated two villages along with their gardens. Vikramendra Varma was addressed with Buddhism- related titles of Mahabodhisatva and Paramasaugata. Sanghadasa belonged to the Kshemacharya branch that belonged to Tamraparni (Sri Lanka).
Vishnukunds were the last Telugu kings who patronized Buddhism. By the end of C.E. 5th Century, to the south of Krishna river, in Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda areas another important branch in Buddhism - Vajrayana - has taken shape. Into Buddhist Sangha relating to this branch, women, wine, mutton, deceitful mantras have all entered, gradually losing purity and affection of the people and at last, such Buddhist places became infamous places of liars and women-seekers. Bomkur, Chinna Bomkur, Pedda Bomkur and Lanjamadugu in Karimnagar district and Lanjaladibba near Jaggayyapeta in Krishna district and others stand as only few examples in this regard. Another development that has taken shape in Buddhism, has been the Brahmin supremacy in Buddhist sanghas and arama- viharas. 'Anantha brahmana sambharasya' that was expressed in connection with vihara installation, in Govinda Varma's inscription, stands as a proof to this. These Brahmins gradually painted Buddha as the ninth avatara (god's rebirth) of Vishnu. As a result, some Buddhist holy centres got turned into Vaishnava holy centres. Essentially, they turned into Narasimha temples. Dharmapuri (Karimnagar district) which had been Buddhist area right from Buddha's time, might have, during the time of Vishnukunds only, got changed as an area of the temples of Ramalingeswara Swamy and Narasimha Swamy.
The last great philosophers of Buddhist religion lived in the Vishnukundin kingdom. Dingnaga belonging to the 5th Century, CE and a scholar in logic lived for some time in Vengi. Here, he debated with Isvarakrishna, the author of 'Sankhya Karika'. From the descriptions found in Kalidas's work 'Meghasandesam' about Godavari river, it is becoming known that Dingnaga lived for some time at Ramagiri (Ramagundam), and Munulagutta (near Kotilingala) in Karimnagar district. Dingnaga has authored more than hundred books. 'Pramana Samuchchayam' was his famous work written in Sanskrit. He taught Yogachara Pandha. He was last of the great Buddhist scholars belonging to the Telugu country. Even in Basara also, there was a stupa and few small inscriptions are there. It is being learnt that Dingnaga has spent some time in that area also.
Jainism
In a Kannada literary text 'Dharamamrutam' written in 1115 CE by a Jaina poet Nayasena, there is a reference to 'Sriparvata' and its adjacent places. The work also gives an explanation of how these place names have come. In this text, it was mentioned that that the name 'Sriparvata' was derived from the first letter in the name of 'Sridharamuni' who was the brother of Ikshvaku king Priyabala - who ruled Vengi country with Pratipalapuram as its capital. When the Gods came to worship him, they all met at a place which thenceforward came to be called as Amaravati. When he was sitting under an 'Arjuna' tree (Maddi tree) and doing meditation, the sky gods have showered jasmine flowers on him and worshipped. Hence, this place came to be called as Mallikarjunam. In Amrabad mandal of Mahaboobnagar district, there is a place by name Vataverlapalli. Near by to this place was located Mallela Tirtham - which may be identified as Mallikarjunam. Pulumavi inscription (first half of the 2nd Century CE) in Nasik mentions a place called 'Siridhan' which perhaps must have been named after Sridharan. In Amaravati mandalam which is now called Amrabad, all the places which are mentioned in the above-cited work, are there. They are Rushula Cheruvu region, or Srisaila region was only Sriparvatam, Amaravati was Amrabad and Mallikarjuna was Srisaila Mallikarjuna temple area.
Jain rushis are called 'munulu'. Accordingly, the place where Sridhara and other Jain munis did meditation, its name might have become 'munuluru'. This village (now Munnenoor) is also in Amrabad mandal. It is further stated in this book that Indraprabhudu, a minister came to Rishinivasa area, took Sridhar with him and made him for some time as the king of Vengi. Hence, as Indra Varma was the first king of Vishnukunds, he might have been appointed by Sridharudu as the administrator of Amrabad area. On the whole, it is becoming known that Srisaila region at the beginning was a Jain area and used to be under the rule of Vishnukunds. Prithvimula, father-in-law of first generation Vishnukund king Govinda Varma, making donations to the Jain vihara at Vardharmanu also indicates the influence of Jainism of those days. To the East of Umamaheswaram, temple of Mukmiridani was there. Mukmirapet was also there near Munulagutta in Vellatur mandal of Karimnagar district. In that way, it gets understood that Mukmiri was a Jainism related Goddess.
It so happened that Jainism got disappeared during the time of the Vishnukunds itself. The followers of Kapalika sect which took its birth during those days, with their magic skills and mantras, enjoying sex with other ladies and indulging in drinking and vulgar dancing, lost people's favour and became responsible for the decline of Jainism. Jain temples became Saiva temples. As per the version of Nayasena, Srisailam itself was a great example to this. It is learnt that Kumarilabhattu who was an Andhra born in Jayamangala village lying on the bank of Mahanadi in Kalinga (Odisha), received Jain education in the beginning, but after realizing that there is nothing that could be appreciated in Jainism, condemned Jainism and attracted many Jains in to Vedic religion. In that way, among those who shifted from Jainism in to Vedic religion, Indra Varma, the first king among the Vishnukunds, might also have one among them.
Literary Development
Vishnukunds have established ghatikasthanas and patronized Vedic studies. Study of the Vedas and praising of Brahmins was seen in the inscriptions. For Brahmins who learn and study the Vedas were given agraharas by the Vishnukunds. Among those who received agraharas, we get the names of Agnisarma and Easwarasarma through the inscriptions. Agricultural development has also taken place in the agraharas. In support of the statement that Ghatikesari, the suburbs of Hyderabad had been the Ghatikasthana of Vishnukunds, nearer to it on Keesaragutta, the structures of the times of Vishnukunds have been unearthed. Those who received agraharas, and donations had been well-versed in education and literature. Dasabalabali, the Buddhist guru as per the inscriptional data, had been learned in the four Vedas, adept in all the sciences, knew all the 18 Buddhist dharmas and a Jnani or highly learned spiritually.
Vishnukund kings remaining intellectuals, had unique vision on life in this world and the other world. Govinda Varma was described as 'Shadabhigna'. Vikramendra Varma had the titles of 'mahakavi', and 'parama sogatasya' (As enlightened as Buddha). Indrabhattaraka Varma had the title of 'ghatikavapta punyasancharya'. Madhava Varma II was praised as 'vidyadvijaguru vipravruddh tapasvi janasraya'. These titles clearly indicate that the Vishnukund kings were themselves not only writers and scholars, but were also patrons of poets and scholars.
A special feature of the Vishnukund period was that Sanskrit replaced Prakrit as State language. Along with the disappearance of Buddhism, its language Prakrit has also disappeared. It is of significance to note that Chaitanyapuri inscription of Govinda Varma related to Buddhism and Prakrit language. All the later inscriptions have been issued in Sanskrit. But, the language of the common people, was of course, Telugu. In the Chikkulla inscription of Vikramendra Varma which was in Sanskrit, the word 'vijaya rajya samvatsarambul' was there. In it, 'ambul' is a Telugu word. The term 'l' is used in place of 'lu' in Telugu, which was its earlier form. 'ambu', 'bu' are used in place of 'mu'. Thus, instead of writing 'samvatsara', it was written as 'samvatsarambul' which is a variant of Telugu term 'samvatsaralu'. So, it is becoming clear that the influence of the people's language, Telugu on the author of the inscription has been immense.
The names of the village names that are mentioned in the Vishnukund inscriptions are all of Telugu only. Thus, we have terms like, Kudavada, Velimbali, Marokaki, Kalika, Puranisangama, Peruvalika, Dendulur, Ravareva, Regosam, Penkapara, Irundero, Tundi, Paraki, Vishayam, Netrapati, vishaya and 'toluchuvandhu', a pure Telugu word carved on a boulder typing on Keesaragutta. Even in a Sanskrit work on poetics 'janasrya chhando vichhitti', there are many references of Telugu language. As Madhava Varma II had the title of 'janasraya', it is felt that this work also was written by him. It is also doubted by a scholars that a person, by name Ganaswamy might have written with the name of king's title ('janasraya'). These doubts have cropped up as the 'preface' of this book is not available. In the fifth chapter of this work, ganas, yatudu, praralu and 'jati padyalu' relating to Telugu Kavitvam, have been explained. 'Seershika' is 'Seesa Padyam' in Telugu. Even the characteristics of 'Itara Jati, 'Upa jati' verses are in accordance with Telugu metre. Among the 'dvipada and tripada' verses that are explained in that chapter,dvipada verses, it is of significance to note that are being seen in Telugu until now. It is becoming known that the word 'janasraya' is also seen in 'kavijanasrayam', a Telugu work on metre written by Malliya Rechana in the beginning of 10th Century C.E., the roots of this work are also there in 'Janasraya Chando Vichhitti', verse writing in Telugu was there even by that time, and hence, a book with verse characteristics has come out.
Development of Architecture and Sculpture
During the Vishnukund period, structures of architecture have demonstrated new style. Their capital cities and caves, temples, arama-viharas, that lay in their surroundings, have become the sources for structures of architecture. In Telangana, Vishnukund forts are there in their capitals of Amaravati (Amrabad), Indrapalanagaram and Keesaragutta. Below Keesaragutta and adjoining the tank, spacious buildings, palaces, Siva temples and Shakti temples, all built in brick, are even now showing their brilliance and splendour. In these temples which are 1500 years old, just like the present day ones, there are garbhagriha, arthamandapam and mukhamandapam. Further, on the walls of Bhuvanagiri fort, the sculptures of royal emblem of the Vishnukunds-pouncing lion-are being seen which suggests that the former was built first by the Vishnukunds only.
During the Vishnukund period, the Buddhist viharas and aramas that were constructed by the kings, royal relatives, and rich persons, have been mainly brought out in Chaitanyapuri of Hyderabad, Indrapalanagaram, Phanigiri, Tirumalgiri, and Gajulabanda in Nalgonda district and Nelakondapalli in Khammam district. Whereas Govindaraju has built Raja vihara at Chaitanyapuri, his queen, Paramabhattaraka Mahadevi has constructed at Indrapalanagaram, a vihara on her name, known as Paramabhattarika Mahadevi vihara. Recently, in the area of this vihara, sculptures of Buddhist acharyas that were carved on the caves that were there at two places have been identified. In the excavations that were taken up by the Government at Phanigiri, sculptures that were carved with Buddhist Jataka stories, Buddha's foot prints, chaityas, stupas, aramas-viharas of the monks and mantapas have come to light. If we view Buddhist stupa at Tirumalagiri from above Phanigiri, it is in seeming distance. Buddhist stupa at Nelakondapalli was so big, it used to be called as Virat stupa. Gradually it came to be called as Virata Raju Gadde. Among the excavations here, marble sculptures of Buddha and metal statues have come to light.
Chaitya decorations of the Vishnukund period are seen on the mantapa pillars that are found on the caves that are on L. Madugu in the surroundings of Manthani town in Karimnagar district, and the caves that are on Gaurigundam waterfall. Hence, it could be said that these are also could be called as Buddhist Aramas. Komati caves which are on the down side of L. Madugu, are stated to be serving as Aramas for the contemporary Jains. Umamaheswaram which was near Amaravati, the birth place of Vishnukunds, Yeleswaram caves, and Alampuram have shone splendidly as Saiva- Shakti temples. Some among the Vishnukunds being praised as parama maheswaras is indicating their devotion towards Siva. The word 'Sriparvata' on their coins also indicates, besides their devotion to Siva, the Saiva temples that they have constructed on Sriparvata. Umamaheswaram, in the later period, became famous as the temple on the Northern entrance to Srisaila temple. At Umamaheswaram, the Sivalinga that got carved by the Pallavas and the war-drum (nagara bheri) that was arranged by the Vishnukunds are there even now. Among the two cave temples at Saleswaram, on the wall of the temple, it was written in Brahmi script as 'viswesa kakkalesa' which was identified by Dr. Dyanavanapalli. We have the inscriptional evidence that Alampuram was there in existence from the time of Ikshvakus who reigned before the Vishnukunds. Alampuram has become famous for Bala Brahmeswara as well as the temple of Jogulamba. The kings who came after the Vishnukunds have constructed here the Nava Brahma temples. At Bhairava Kona which is located on the border of Prakasam and Nellore districts, cave temples of Vishnukund times are there.
Four storeyed cave temple at Undavalli, in areas surrounding Vijayawada which served as an alternate capital for the Vishnukunds (such as Undavalli, Mogalrajapuram, and Indrakeeladri hills), multi-storeyed Buddhist sanctuaries and monasteries were carved out. Inscriptions bearing the name Sri Utpatti Pidugu have been discovered on pillars and walls, alongside similar writings at cave temples like Saleswaram and Pandavulagutta in the Warangal district. Some historians suggest these inscriptions were created by Saivites following the displacement of Buddhists and Jains, while others propose they denote an organized collective of architects and sculptors. Although the exact motivation remains debated, the presence of an architectural guild is evidenced by the ancient Telugu term Toluchuvandlu discovered in Keesaragutta.
Conclusion
The Vishnukund dynasty governed the entire Telugu territory north of the Krishna River for a duration exceeding two hundred years. Throughout their extensive rule, they established a Hindu-centric cultural framework that replaced earlier composite traditions and served as a model for subsequent dynasties. Their distinct approaches to architecture and sculpture influenced both the Pallavas to the south and the Chalukyas to the west, demonstrating their historical significance. Demonstrating their profound legacy, prominent rulers of the Kakatiya dynasty regarded the Vishnukund monarch Madhava Varma II as their foundational ancestor.
While deeply devoted to the Vedic tradition through rituals and sacrifices, the Vishnukund kings practiced religious pluralism. They generously supported Buddhist and Jain institutions and monks, reflecting a strong policy of tolerance and public welfare administration. Monarchs like Govinda Varma and Madhava Varma II authored Sanskrit texts, founded educational and administrative centers known as ghatikas, and strongly championed scholars and poets. Recognized as the initial royal house to initiate its political journey within Telangana, the Vishnukunds successfully achieved regional dominance, widespread peace, and economic prosperity through exceptional governance.
